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Occupation index

AI displacement risk by occupation

Job titles are too broad to explain AI displacement. This index compares roles by task exposure, automation potential, augmentation potential, median wage, and adjacent transition paths.

Featured roles

Start with the work most likely to be searched

Each role page is generated from the same evidence-tracked occupation model used by the lens.

SOC 43-9021

Data Entry Keyers

Routine structured entry, duplicate checks, and record transfer are highly exposed to direct automation. The strongest transition path moves workers from keystroke volume into data quality, exception handling, and workflow support.

Displacement pressure 86
Exposure
92
Automation
78%
Augment
18%
Very High
SOC 43-3031

Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks

Invoice matching, reconciliations, and routine reporting are exposed to automation. Judgment around controls, vendor context, audit trails, and anomaly escalation can become more valuable.

Displacement pressure 71
Exposure
78
Automation
59%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 43-4051

Customer Service Representatives

Scripted inquiries, routing, and knowledge-base answers are highly exposed. Complex escalation, retention, empathy, and account context remain the transition anchors.

Displacement pressure 73
Exposure
73
Automation
57%
Augment
39%
High
SOC 13-1161

Market Research Analysts

Summarization, draft segmentation, and desk research are exposed, but domain judgment, study design, stakeholder context, and synthesis make this a strong augmentation case.

Displacement pressure 45
Exposure
54
Automation
37%
Augment
61%
Moderate
SOC 15-1252

Software Developers

Code generation changes the junior task bundle, but architecture, debugging, security, product judgment, and system ownership keep the role augmentation-heavy.

Displacement pressure 39
Exposure
63
Automation
29%
Augment
74%
Low
SOC 29-1141

Registered Nurses

Documentation and administrative follow-up can change quickly, but hands-on care, clinical judgment, licensing, and patient trust constrain direct replacement.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
28
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 25-2021

Elementary School Teachers

Lesson prep, differentiated materials, and feedback loops are augmentable. Classroom management, care, student relationships, and local accountability remain central.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
22
Automation
10%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 51-4041

Machinists

Physical production limits pure software substitution, while setup optimization, maintenance planning, and quality analytics can augment skilled operators.

Displacement pressure 31
Exposure
35
Automation
22%
Augment
33%
Moderate
SOC 23-2011

Paralegals and Legal Assistants

Document review, drafting, and research are exposed to AI assistance, while case context, client communication, attorney supervision, and jurisdiction-specific process remain important anchors.

Displacement pressure 61
Exposure
71
Automation
48%
Augment
55%
High
SOC 13-1071

Human Resources Specialists

Resume screening, policy answers, and first-draft communications can be automated or augmented, but employee relations, hiring judgment, trust, and process design keep the role human-centered.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
58
Automation
35%
Augment
59%
Moderate
SOC 27-1024

Graphic Designers

Asset variation, layout drafts, and production design are exposed, while brand judgment, creative direction, client interpretation, and systems thinking become more important.

Displacement pressure 55
Exposure
64
Automation
42%
Augment
63%
Moderate
SOC 47-2111

Electricians

Hands-on installation, safety, code compliance, and field troubleshooting make direct AI replacement unlikely, while estimating, diagnostics, and documentation can improve with tools.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
7%
Augment
31%
Low
SOC 41-4012

Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing

Lead research, outreach drafts, and CRM updates are augmentable, but territory knowledge, negotiation, trust, and account strategy remain central.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
49
Automation
28%
Augment
57%
Moderate
SOC 41-2031

Retail Salespersons

Product questions, checkout, inventory lookup, and scripted service can be augmented or automated. In-person trust, merchandising judgment, local customer knowledge, and service recovery remain important anchors.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
56
Automation
34%
Augment
42%
Moderate
SOC 35-3023

Fast Food and Counter Workers

Kiosk ordering, drive-through voice systems, scheduling tools, and prep automation can reduce routine counter work. Reliability, shift leadership, food safety, and customer recovery remain more resilient.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
47
Automation
39%
Augment
24%
High
SOC 31-9092

Medical Assistants

Scheduling, chart preparation, and patient messaging can be augmented. Hands-on care, rooming patients, vital signs, specimen handling, and local clinical protocols keep the role comparatively resilient.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
38
Automation
18%
Augment
49%
Low
SOC 13-1082

Project Management Specialists

Status reporting, meeting summaries, dependency tracking, and draft plans are strong augmentation cases. Human negotiation, sequencing, tradeoff calls, and stakeholder trust remain the core value.

Displacement pressure 37
Exposure
51
Automation
22%
Augment
66%
Low
SOC 15-1212

Information Security Analysts

Alert triage, report drafting, detection tuning, and policy review can be accelerated by AI. Accountability, incident command, adversarial reasoning, and environment-specific context keep the role resilient.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
72%
Low
SOC 41-2011

Cashiers

Transaction scanning, payment handling, price lookup, and routine customer routing are highly exposed to self-checkout, kiosks, and computer vision workflows. Service recovery, trust, store knowledge, and shift reliability remain the strongest anchors.

Displacement pressure 78
Exposure
64
Automation
58%
Augment
18%
High
SOC 43-4171

Receptionists and Information Clerks

Appointment scheduling, call routing, visitor instructions, and routine intake are exposed to AI agents and workflow software. Trust, escalation judgment, local context, and office operations coordination remain defensible.

Displacement pressure 69
Exposure
70
Automation
51%
Augment
40%
High
SOC 43-6014

Secretaries and Administrative Assistants

Calendar management, drafting, formatting, travel planning, note summaries, and routine follow-ups are exposed to AI assistants. Executive context, prioritization, confidentiality, and process ownership remain the transition anchors.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
76
Automation
55%
Augment
48%
High
SOC 27-3043

Writers and Authors

Drafting, summarization, outlines, headlines, product copy, and content variations are highly exposed to generative AI. Original reporting, taste, editorial judgment, audience trust, and subject-matter expertise become more important.

Displacement pressure 74
Exposure
88
Automation
54%
Augment
74%
High
SOC 27-3091

Interpreters and Translators

Text translation, captioning, and routine localization are highly exposed to machine translation and speech systems. Live interpretation, legal/medical nuance, cultural adaptation, and quality review remain more defensible.

Displacement pressure 76
Exposure
84
Automation
61%
Augment
58%
High
SOC 13-2072

Loan Officers

Application intake, document review, credit summaries, and routine eligibility checks are exposed to automated underwriting. Relationship management, exception judgment, compliance, and borrower trust remain important.

Displacement pressure 60
Exposure
68
Automation
46%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 53-7065

Stockers and Order Fillers

Picking routes, inventory lookup, replenishment priorities, and warehouse slotting are increasingly shaped by software and robotics. Physical execution, exception handling, safety, and equipment operation remain important.

Displacement pressure 54
Exposure
42
Automation
36%
Augment
28%
Moderate
SOC 13-2011

Accountants and Auditors

Transaction coding, reconciliation review, and first-draft reporting are increasingly handled by AI inside accounting platforms. Advisory judgment, controls ownership, attestation, and client communication remain the durable core, so the role is reshaping toward review and assurance rather than disappearing.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
67
Automation
38%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-2051

Financial Analysts

Data gathering, model maintenance, and first-draft commentary compress sharply under AI assistance. The role tilts toward framing questions, challenging model output, and defending recommendations to decision-makers, which raises the bar for junior entry while augmenting experienced analysts.

Displacement pressure 43
Exposure
62
Automation
31%
Augment
69%
Moderate
SOC 13-2082

Tax Preparers

Standard individual returns are the textbook case for document-driven automation: intake, classification, and form preparation are increasingly completed by software with AI review. Complex filings, representation, and planning conversations are where human preparers retain clear value.

Displacement pressure 74
Exposure
81
Automation
64%
Augment
38%
High
SOC 13-1031

Claims Adjusters, Examiners, and Investigators

Document review, damage estimation from photos, and routine claim decisions are moving into automated pipelines. Contested claims, fraud investigation, catastrophe response, and empathetic communication during loss remain strongly human, so the role concentrates into its hardest cases.

Displacement pressure 61
Exposure
70
Automation
47%
Augment
53%
High
SOC 13-2053

Insurance Underwriters

Personal-lines risk scoring is already largely algorithmic, and AI extends that reach into small-commercial underwriting. Complex commercial, specialty, and excess lines still depend on negotiated judgment, broker relationships, and portfolio strategy, which is where underwriters should move.

Displacement pressure 66
Exposure
74
Automation
52%
Augment
50%
High
SOC 15-1251

Computer Programmers

Writing code to someone else's specification is exactly what AI coding tools now do well, and BLS projected this occupation to decline even before modern code generation. The defensible move is up the stack: owning design, integration, review, and outcomes rather than implementation alone.

Displacement pressure 63
Exposure
72
Automation
49%
Augment
61%
High
SOC 15-1254

Web Developers

Template sites, simple storefronts, and routine page builds are increasingly produced by AI site builders, squeezing the low end of the market. Value consolidates in product engineering, performance, accessibility, integrations, and owning outcomes for businesses rather than pages.

Displacement pressure 54
Exposure
68
Automation
42%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 15-1253

Software Quality Assurance Analysts and Testers

Manual regression passes and routine test-case writing are heavily exposed as AI generates tests and exercises applications directly. Quality strategy, risk-based judgment about what to test, and owning release confidence are the durable layer, pushing QA toward engineering and away from execution.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
69
Automation
45%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 15-1232

Computer User Support Specialists

Password resets, how-to questions, and known-issue triage are moving to AI assistants that resolve tickets before they reach a human. Hands-on hardware, escalations, endpoint security, and judgment calls in messy environments keep the human tier, which shifts the job toward harder tickets and systems work.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
66
Automation
44%
Augment
55%
Moderate
SOC 27-3042

Technical Writers

First-draft documentation, release notes, and reference material now generate quickly from specs and code. What endures is information architecture, accuracy verification against real systems, audience judgment, and owning documentation as a product, which moves writers toward docs engineering and content strategy.

Displacement pressure 64
Exposure
78
Automation
50%
Augment
65%
High
SOC 27-3041

Editors

Copyediting, style enforcement, and routine line edits are well within AI capability, and generative drafting changes what arrives on an editor's desk. Editorial judgment — deciding what is worth publishing, shaping arguments, managing writers, and owning standards — concentrates value at the top of the craft.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
76
Automation
48%
Augment
66%
High
SOC 27-3023

News Analysts, Reporters, and Journalists

Commodity coverage — earnings recaps, sports scores, weather, aggregation — is already automated, and AI summarization erodes rewrite work. Original reporting, sourced investigation, access journalism, and accountable verification remain human work that machines cannot do without the relationships behind it.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
71
Automation
42%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 53-3032

Heavy and Tractor-Trailer Truck Drivers

Autonomous trucking is live on limited freight corridors, but full substitution is gated by weather, regulation, liability, first-mile and last-mile complexity, and decades of fleet turnover. Near-term, AI changes dispatch, routing, and monitoring more than it removes drivers, with hub-to-hub corridors automating first.

Displacement pressure 33
Exposure
38
Automation
27%
Augment
35%
Moderate
SOC 41-9022

Real Estate Sales Agents

Listing descriptions, market comps, scheduling, and lead qualification are automating quickly, and AI search changes how buyers discover homes. The transaction's emotional weight, negotiation, local knowledge, and licensed accountability keep agents central — but commission pressure and fewer, more productive agents are the realistic trajectory.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
52
Automation
28%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 43-3071

Tellers

Routine transactions left for apps and ATMs years ago, and AI assistants now absorb the service questions that justified remaining branch staff. Banks are converting teller lines into advisory roles, so the realistic path is upward into banker, lending, or operations tracks rather than defending the window.

Displacement pressure 76
Exposure
72
Automation
58%
Augment
30%
High
SOC 15-2051

Data Analysts

Routine reporting, data cleaning, and dashboard refreshes are highly exposed to automation. Analysts who frame business questions, validate model output, and translate findings into decisions remain strongly augmentable.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 13-1111

Business Analysts

Information gathering, requirements documentation, and draft recommendations are exposed to AI assistance. Problem framing, stakeholder interviews, and implementation judgment keep the role augmentation-heavy.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
58
Automation
32%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 43-3051

Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks

Wage computation, paycheck processing, and timekeeping entry are rules-based and highly exposed to payroll automation. Discrepancy resolution, tax-rule changes, and employee questions remain the human core.

Displacement pressure 76
Exposure
82
Automation
66%
Augment
30%
High
SOC 43-3061

Procurement Clerks

Purchase-order preparation, requisition tracking, and bid comparison are structured workflows with high automation exposure. Supplier problem-solving, expediting, and purchasing-rule knowledge stay valuable.

Displacement pressure 68
Exposure
76
Automation
58%
Augment
36%
High
SOC 43-4151

Order Clerks

Order entry, completeness checks, inventory lookup, and invoice preparation are structured tasks that ecommerce and order-management systems absorb quickly. Complaint handling and order exceptions remain the resilient work.

Displacement pressure 78
Exposure
84
Automation
70%
Augment
26%
High
SOC 43-5032

Dispatchers, Except Police, Fire, and Ambulance

Scheduling, routing, and status monitoring are increasingly automated by fleet and routing software. Urgent exceptions, crew coordination, customer negotiation, and real-time judgment keep experienced dispatchers valuable.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
62
Automation
42%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 43-4051

Call Center Agents

Voice AI and chat automation now absorb scripted questions, order status, and account lookups at scale. Complex complaints, retention saves, and frustrated-customer de-escalation remain the defensible human work.

Displacement pressure 77
Exposure
80
Automation
64%
Augment
28%
High
SOC 41-9041

Telemarketers

Scripted cold outreach, list-based solicitation, and order capture are among the most automatable tasks in the economy, and AI voice agents are targeting exactly this work. Employment has been declining for years.

Displacement pressure 84
Exposure
88
Automation
74%
Augment
18%
Very High
SOC 43-4171

Receptionists

Call routing, appointment scheduling, and routine visitor instructions are being absorbed by AI phone agents and booking software. In-person greeting, sensitive exceptions, and office coordination remain human-centered.

Displacement pressure 68
Exposure
72
Automation
52%
Augment
36%
High
SOC 43-6011

Executive Secretaries and Executive Administrative Assistants

Calendar management, travel booking, meeting minutes, and routine correspondence are exposed to AI scheduling and drafting tools. Executive trust, prioritization judgment, and gatekeeping remain difficult to automate.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
66
Automation
44%
Augment
52%
High
SOC 43-9061

Office Clerks, General

Filing, document typing, record compilation, and message routing form a broad task bundle that office software and AI assistants now handle well. Coordination across departments and exception handling remain the durable value.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
78
Automation
58%
Augment
32%
High
SOC 43-3021

Billing and Posting Clerks

Invoice preparation, charge computation, and statement generation are structured workflows with strong automation exposure. Discrepancy investigation, customer account conversations, and rate-rule knowledge remain more durable.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
80
Automation
62%
Augment
30%
High
SOC 29-2072

Medical Records Specialists

Chart abstraction, data entry, and record retrieval are exposed to AI coding and documentation tools. Coding accuracy disputes, privacy rules, release-of-information judgment, and clinician clarification keep humans accountable.

Displacement pressure 57
Exposure
68
Automation
48%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 31-9094

Medical Transcriptionists

Speech recognition and ambient clinical documentation have automated the core dictation-to-text workflow that defined this occupation. Employment is declining sharply, and remaining work centers on editing AI output for terminology accuracy.

Displacement pressure 84
Exposure
90
Automation
76%
Augment
24%
Very High
SOC 27-3043

Copywriters

First-draft ad copy, slogan variations, and product descriptions are now generated cheaply at scale. Brand voice judgment, campaign strategy, client interpretation, and original creative concepts remain the defensible craft.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
84
Automation
56%
Augment
68%
High
SOC 43-9081

Proofreaders and Copy Markers

Error detection in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and cross-record consistency is exactly what language models now do at near-zero marginal cost. Standalone proofreading roles are shrinking into broader editing and content quality work.

Displacement pressure 79
Exposure
88
Automation
70%
Augment
30%
High
SOC 27-3031

Social Media Managers

Post drafting, scheduling, and trend monitoring are heavily augmentable with AI tools. Community trust, crisis judgment, brand voice, and platform-native creativity keep the role more redesigned than replaced.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
62
Automation
36%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 41-3041

Travel Agents

Routine booking, fare lookup, and standard itinerary building are directly targeted by AI travel planning tools. Complex multi-stop trips, group logistics, disruption handling, and trusted advisor relationships sustain the remaining niche.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
80
Automation
62%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 53-7062

Warehouse Workers

Robotics and warehouse automation are absorbing repetitive picking, sorting, and moving tasks in large facilities. Physical adaptability, exception handling, equipment operation, and safety judgment keep human crews essential in most warehouses.

Displacement pressure 55
Exposure
52
Automation
42%
Augment
26%
Moderate
SOC 17-1011

Architects, Except Landscape and Naval

Generative design tools can produce drawing options, code checks, and early concepts quickly. Client needs interpretation, regulatory accountability, site judgment, and licensed professional sign-off keep the occupation resilient.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
48
Automation
22%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 17-3011

Drafters

Converting sketches and specifications into finished CAD drawings is precisely the production task generative design and BIM automation are absorbing. Code analysis, revision coordination, and engineering collaboration offer partial shelter.

Displacement pressure 66
Exposure
76
Automation
54%
Augment
50%
High
SOC 27-4021

Photographers

Generative imagery is compressing stock, product, and generic commercial photography. Event presence, client direction, lighting craft, and trusted capture of real moments remain things AI cannot replicate on location.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
60
Automation
38%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 27-4032

Film and Video Editors

AI tools now handle rough cuts, captioning, silence removal, and format versioning quickly. Story structure, pacing judgment, director collaboration, and final-cut taste keep skilled editors valuable in a growing content market.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
68
Automation
42%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 27-1014

Special Effects Artists and Animators

Generative tools are changing asset production, in-betweening, and background work across animation pipelines. Story development, character performance, art direction, and pipeline craft remain the scarce skills.

Displacement pressure 55
Exposure
66
Automation
40%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 25-3041

Tutors

AI tutoring apps now answer questions, generate practice problems, and explain concepts on demand, competing directly with routine homework help. Motivation, accountability, diagnosis of misconceptions, and parent trust keep human tutors relevant.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 23-1011

Lawyers

Legal research, document drafting, and precedent analysis are strongly augmentable and partially automatable. Client counsel, courtroom advocacy, negotiation, ethical accountability, and licensing keep the profession protected at its core.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 43-6012

Legal Secretaries and Administrative Assistants

Preparing and proofreading legal documents, maintaining case files, and scheduling attorney calendars are exposed to drafting tools and practice-management automation. Filing accuracy, court procedure knowledge, and attorney support remain anchors.

Displacement pressure 74
Exposure
80
Automation
60%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 43-4161

Human Resources Assistants, Except Payroll and Timekeeping

Personnel record maintenance, application processing, and routine policy answers are exposed to HR automation and employee self-service. Applicant screening judgment, sensitive documentation handling, and benefits guidance keep a human layer.

Displacement pressure 68
Exposure
76
Automation
52%
Augment
40%
High
SOC 13-1071

Recruiters

AI sourcing, resume screening, and outreach drafting are compressing the transactional side of recruiting. Candidate assessment, hiring-manager partnership, offer negotiation, and talent market judgment remain the differentiators.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
66
Automation
40%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-1111

Management Analysts

Desk research, data gathering, and recommendation-report drafting are increasingly AI-assisted. Engagement scoping, on-site observation, organizational politics, and implementation follow-through keep consulting work human-led.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 11-2021

Product Managers

AI tools now draft specs, synthesize user research, and analyze market data quickly. Prioritization under constraint, engineering partnership, strategic tradeoffs, and accountability for outcomes keep product management augmentation-heavy.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
54
Automation
24%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 15-1255

UX Designers

Generative UI tools can produce wireframes, layout variations, and draft copy in seconds. User research, interaction judgment, accessibility expertise, and cross-functional negotiation keep strong designers ahead of the tools.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
60
Automation
34%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 15-2051

Data Scientists

AI coding assistants accelerate model prototyping, feature engineering, and analysis code. Problem formulation, experiment design, model validation, and communicating uncertainty to decision-makers keep the role firmly augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
60
Automation
34%
Augment
76%
Moderate
SOC 15-1212

Cybersecurity Specialists

AI accelerates threat monitoring, risk assessment documentation, and policy drafting, raising each specialist's leverage. Adversarial reasoning, incident containment, access governance, and security culture building remain human-accountable work.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 43-4131

Loan Interviewers and Clerks

Application verification, document assembly, and data recording are exactly the workflows digital lending platforms automate. Applicant interviews, complex file troubleshooting, and closing coordination keep experienced processors useful.

Displacement pressure 70
Exposure
78
Automation
56%
Augment
32%
High
SOC 27-3091

Interpreters

Machine translation handles written text far better than live speech. Real-time spoken and signed interpretation in courts, hospitals, and schools carries latency, accuracy, confidentiality, and liability demands that keep human interpreters preferred.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
66
Automation
40%
Augment
46%
Moderate
SOC 27-3091

Translators

Written translation is the single most machine-exposed language task: neural and AI translation now produce usable drafts instantly. Post-editing, literary and marketing nuance, certified translation, and terminology governance are where the work is moving.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
86
Automation
60%
Augment
56%
High
SOC 15-1242

Database Administrators

Routine tuning, backup scheduling, patching, and access provisioning are increasingly automated by cloud database platforms and AI operations tools. Data modeling, security architecture, migration judgment, and outage accountability keep experienced administrators valuable.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
60
Automation
40%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 15-1244

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

Monitoring, routine maintenance, backups, and configuration tasks are being absorbed by cloud services and AI-driven operations tooling. Troubleshooting complex failures, security implementation, and physical infrastructure judgment remain human-led.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
52
Automation
30%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 11-2021

Marketing Managers

AI tools now draft campaigns, generate creative variations, and analyze performance data at scale. Brand judgment, budget accountability, team leadership, and cross-channel strategy keep marketing management an augmentation story.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
58
Automation
28%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 13-1041

Compliance Officers

AI review tools accelerate document examination, policy mapping, and monitoring report preparation. Regulatory interpretation, investigation judgment, auditor relationships, and accountability for violations keep the role human-anchored.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 15-2031

Operations Research Analysts

AI assistance accelerates model formulation, validation code, and management reporting. Problem definition, model judgment under conflicting objectives, and implementation collaboration with decision-makers keep this role augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 13-1081

Logisticians

Tracking, allocation, and performance reporting are increasingly automated by logistics platforms. Carrier and subcontractor relationships, disruption response, and lifecycle coordination across product programs keep human logisticians central.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
58
Automation
34%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-1081

Supply Chain Analysts

Data compilation, forecast drafting, and performance reporting are strong AI augmentation candidates. Network design judgment, scenario modeling, and translating analytics into sourcing and inventory decisions keep analysts valuable.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 13-2041

Credit Analysts

Financial statement spreading, ratio generation, and draft risk reports are increasingly automated by credit decisioning platforms. Complex commercial judgment, customer context, and loan committee advocacy keep experienced analysts relevant.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
70
Automation
46%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 13-2052

Personal Financial Advisors

Robo-advisors and AI planning tools automate portfolio allocation, projections, and plan document drafts. Behavioral coaching, trust, complex family situations, and fiduciary accountability keep human advisors preferred for significant wealth.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 19-3022

Survey Researchers

Questionnaire drafting, data tabulation, and summary reporting are heavily AI-augmentable. Sampling design, methodology judgment, response-quality evaluation, and client consultation on research needs keep methodological expertise valuable.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
68
Automation
44%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 17-2051

Civil Engineers

Design drafting, quantity estimation, and report preparation are increasingly AI-assisted. Site judgment, regulatory accountability, public safety responsibility, and licensed sign-off keep civil engineering structurally protected.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 17-2141

Mechanical Engineers

Simulation setup, drawing interpretation, and routine calculations are accelerating with AI-assisted engineering tools. Failure investigation, physical prototyping, cross-disciplinary design judgment, and manufacturing accountability keep the role resilient.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
46
Automation
22%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 17-2071

Electrical Engineers

Schematic drafting, calculation, and specification preparation are increasingly AI-assisted. Hardware debugging, safety accountability, installation inspection, and system-level judgment across power and electronics keep the role resilient.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
64%
Low
SOC 13-1161

UX Researchers

Transcription, theme extraction, and findings reports are now AI-accelerated, and synthetic-user tools promise cheap research. Study design, participant recruitment, behavioral observation, and organizational influence keep real research defensible.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
66
Automation
38%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 15-2051

Machine Learning Engineers

The engineers building AI systems benefit most from them: scaffolding, training code, and evaluation harnesses are increasingly AI-written. System design, production reliability, evaluation judgment, and data pipeline ownership keep demand strong.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
62
Automation
34%
Augment
78%
Moderate
SOC 53-7062

Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers, Hand

Manual loading, sorting, and moving work faces pressure from warehouse robotics and mechanized handling, especially in high-volume facilities. Irregular environments, construction sites, docks, and mixed physical tasks resist full automation.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
48
Automation
38%
Augment
24%
Moderate
SOC 53-3033

Light Truck Drivers

Route optimization and dispatch apps already direct most delivery work, and autonomous delivery pilots target the same routes. Apartment complexes, customer handoffs, vehicle care, and exception handling keep human drivers needed near term.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
44
Automation
30%
Augment
38%
Moderate
SOC 53-7051

Industrial Truck and Tractor Operators

Automated guided vehicles and robotic pallet handling target exactly the repetitive loops forklift operators run in large facilities. Mixed loads, irregular yards, safety judgment, and equipment care keep skilled operators needed outside automated sites.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
40
Automation
32%
Augment
26%
Moderate
SOC 49-9041

Industrial Machinery Mechanics

Predictive maintenance sensors and AI diagnostics change how failures are found, but hands-on repair, disassembly, alignment, and fabrication remain stubbornly physical. More factory automation literally means more machines needing mechanics.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
26
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-4121

Welders, Cutters, Solderers, and Brazers

Robotic welding handles high-volume repetitive seams, but most welding work happens in variable positions, environments, and materials where human judgment, setup skill, and certification matter. AI assists inspection and planning more than it replaces welders.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
16
Automation
8%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 47-2152

Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters

Plumbing happens inside walls, under floors, and in aging buildings where no two jobs match. AI can help with diagnostics, estimating, and code lookup, but installation, repair, and inspection work is physical, licensed, and local.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
14
Automation
6%
Augment
32%
Low
SOC 47-2031

Carpenters

Framing, finishing, and repair carpentry are physical, site-specific, and highly variable. AI tools help with layout, measurement, and estimating, while prefab and robotics absorb only the standardized factory portions of the trade.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 49-9021

Heating, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers

Smart diagnostics and connected thermostats help technicians find faults faster, but installation, brazing, refrigerant handling, and system balancing are hands-on work in every kind of building. Efficiency mandates and electrification are expanding demand.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
20
Automation
8%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 11-9021

Construction Managers

AI tools accelerate scheduling, cost reporting, and document review, but coordinating crews, subcontractors, inspectors, weather, and change orders on live sites is irreducibly situational. The role gains productivity tools without losing its human core.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
38
Automation
16%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 43-4071

File Clerks

Sorting, classifying, storing, and retrieving records is a workflow that document management systems and AI classification now perform almost entirely. Records retention judgment, confidentiality handling, and digitization oversight are the remaining footholds.

Displacement pressure 82
Exposure
88
Automation
72%
Augment
24%
Very High
SOC 27-3092

Court Reporters and Simultaneous Captioners

Speech recognition can now produce rough verbatim transcripts cheaply, pressuring the core stenographic task. Certified accuracy, real-time captioning, legal formatting, and courtroom procedure keep certified reporters preferred for official records.

Displacement pressure 64
Exposure
78
Automation
56%
Augment
44%
High
SOC 43-5051

Postal Service Clerks

Mail sorting is heavily automated, and kiosks plus online postage absorb routine counter transactions. Complex mail questions, regulation guidance, identity verification, and accountable-mail handling remain the human counter work.

Displacement pressure 66
Exposure
66
Automation
52%
Augment
24%
High
SOC 29-2052

Pharmacy Technicians

Counting, labeling, and inventory tasks are increasingly handled by dispensing robots and pharmacy automation. Patient interaction, insurance problem-solving, sterile compounding, and pharmacist support keep certified technicians needed.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
56
Automation
38%
Augment
42%
Moderate
SOC 31-9091

Dental Assistants

Chairside assistance, instrument sterilization, and patient preparation are physical, in-person tasks AI cannot perform. Digital records, AI imaging review, and scheduling tools change the administrative portion of the job, not the clinical core.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 29-2061

Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses

Charting and vitals documentation are being streamlined by AI documentation tools, but administering medication, wound care, patient observation, and hands-on basic nursing are licensed physical tasks with durable demand in aging-care settings.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 31-2021

Physical Therapist Assistants

Guiding patients through exercises, manual therapy, and mobility training is embodied work that requires presence, touch, and motivation. Documentation tools reduce note-writing burden; the therapeutic relationship and hands-on treatment remain the job.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 29-2034

Radiologic Technologists and Technicians

AI image analysis anxiety targets radiologists more than technologists. Patient positioning, radiation safety, equipment operation, and image quality judgment are licensed, hands-on tasks where AI serves as a second reader rather than a replacement.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
42
Automation
22%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 29-2032

Diagnostic Medical Sonographers

Ultrasound is uniquely operator-dependent: image quality comes from real-time probe technique on a moving patient. AI helps with measurements and documentation, but acquiring diagnostic images, judging anatomy live, and deciding when to extend an exam remain human skills.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 27-3031

Public Relations Specialists

Press release drafts, media monitoring, and coverage reports are now AI-accelerated commodities. Journalist relationships, crisis judgment, executive counsel, and stakeholder trust remain work that cannot be delegated to a model.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
68
Automation
40%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 27-1025

Interior Designers

Consumer AI tools now generate room concepts and mood boards instantly, pressuring the visualization portion of the job. Code compliance, space planning judgment, contractor coordination, and client relationship management keep professional designers distinct.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
58
Automation
34%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 27-1022

Fashion Designers

AI image generation accelerates concept sketches, trend boards, and variation exploration. Material selection, fit judgment, production coordination, and original creative vision remain the craft that separates designers from prompt output.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
56
Automation
32%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 27-3043

Book Authors

Generative writing can produce competent long-form drafts, flooding the market with content. Distinctive voice, deep research, lived experience, and reader relationships remain what separates working authors from commodity text.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
86
Automation
50%
Augment
72%
High
SOC 27-2042

Musicians and Singers

Generative music tools can produce serviceable background tracks, pressuring stock and session work. Live performance, improvisation, teaching, and the artist-fan relationship remain human territory, with synthetic vocals raising rights questions rather than filling venues.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
46
Automation
24%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 27-2011

Actors

Digital doubles and synthetic performers now handle background and some commercial work, which drove recent strikes and contract fights. Embodied performance, live theatre, emotional range, and star identity remain irreducibly human.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
48
Automation
26%
Augment
42%
Moderate
SOC 41-3011

Advertising Sales Agents

Self-serve ad platforms have absorbed the transactional middle of advertising sales. Consultative selling, local business relationships, campaign strategy, and multi-channel package design remain where human agents earn their commissions.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 43-4141

New Accounts Clerks

Account opening, application intake, and document processing are moving to digital onboarding flows and AI document review. Needs-based conversations, error investigation, and referral to bankers for complex needs keep branch staff relevant.

Displacement pressure 68
Exposure
72
Automation
54%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 43-4081

Hotel, Motel, and Resort Desk Clerks

Online check-in, mobile keys, and chatbots absorb routine registration and question-answering. Guest problem resolution, upgrades and service recovery, local knowledge, and the hospitality impression remain human work in full-service properties.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
66
Automation
46%
Augment
34%
Moderate
SOC 35-3031

Waiters and Waitresses

Tablets and QR ordering handle order capture, and robotic runners appear in some chains. Carrying meals, reading tables, upselling, dietary judgment, and turning a meal into an experience remain physical and social work robots do not do.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
34
Automation
22%
Augment
22%
Moderate
SOC 35-3011

Bartenders

Automated pour systems exist, but bartending is atmosphere work: conversation, crowd reading, judgment about intoxication, and craft presentation. The social contract of a bar resists automation far more than its recipe book does.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
30
Automation
18%
Augment
24%
Low
SOC 35-2014

Cooks, Restaurant

Kitchen robotics handle some frying and assembly in high-volume chains, but most restaurant cooking is variable, sensory, and fast-adapting work. Seasoning judgment, timing across stations, and quality control remain human skills kitchens struggle to staff.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
36
Automation
26%
Augment
22%
Moderate
SOC 33-9032

Security Guards

AI cameras and remote monitoring change what guards watch, shifting routine observation to software. Physical response, de-escalation, emergency first aid, and on-site judgment keep human presence necessary at most posts.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
46
Automation
32%
Augment
30%
Moderate
SOC 25-1123

Teachers, Postsecondary

Lecture drafting, quiz generation, and grading assistance are strongly AI-augmentable. Mentorship, research supervision, seminar facilitation, and scholarly judgment remain the core of professor work, though AI is changing course design expectations.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
54
Automation
22%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 25-9042

Teaching Assistants

Grading support, material preparation, and record keeping are augmentable with AI tools. Supervising students, one-on-one support for children with special needs, and classroom presence remain hands-on work that schools continue to hire for.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 25-9031

Instructional Coordinators

AI course generation accelerates lesson drafts, assessment items, and material adaptation. Needs assessment, teacher coaching, curriculum standards alignment, and measuring what actually improves learning keep instructional design human-led.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 25-4022

Librarians and Media Collections Specialists

Search and retrieval — once the heart of reference work — is exactly what AI now does instantly. Collection curation, information literacy instruction, community programming, and guidance on evaluating AI-era information quality keep librarians relevant.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
56
Automation
32%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 13-1151

Training and Development Specialists

Course materials, manuals, and e-learning drafts are now generated in hours instead of weeks. Needs assessment, live facilitation, behavior change design, and measuring whether training actually works keep learning specialists valuable.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
60
Automation
32%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 33-3051

Police and Sheriff's Patrol Officers

Report writing, evidence review, and data analysis are being augmented by AI tools, with real accountability debates attached. Patrol presence, de-escalation, emergency response, and legal authority remain inherently human and public-trust-bound.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 33-2011

Firefighters

Firefighting is one of the least automatable jobs in the economy: physical rescue, fireground judgment, and emergency medical response happen in chaotic, dangerous environments. Drones, sensors, and AI dispatch add capability without replacing crews.

Displacement pressure 8
Exposure
14
Automation
5%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 11-3031

Financial Managers

AI accelerates financial reporting, forecasting, and risk analysis, raising expectations for finance-team output. Capital allocation, regulatory accountability, investor communication, and team leadership keep financial management an augmentation story.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 15-2011

Actuaries

Data preparation, rate-table construction, and draft analysis are increasingly AI-assisted. Model governance, assumption judgment, regulatory defense of pricing, and the exam credential keep actuarial work augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
60
Automation
34%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 15-2041

Statisticians

Computation, visualization, and report drafting are heavily AI-accelerated. Statistical judgment — choosing valid methods, designing studies, questioning data quality, and defending inference — is precisely what distinguishes statisticians from generated output.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
62
Automation
36%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 41-3021

Insurance Sales Agents

Online quoting and AI comparison tools absorb transactional policy sales, especially simple auto and home coverage. Complex risk advice, commercial accounts, claims advocacy, and trusted relationships keep human agents in the loop.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
64
Automation
42%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 41-3031

Securities and Financial Services Sales Agents

Algorithms already execute most trading, and AI research tools compress analysis workflows. Client relationships, complex deal structuring, market color, and trusted execution judgment keep human brokers and advisors relevant at the institutional level.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
58
Automation
34%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 13-1121

Meeting and Event Planners

AI planning tools draft agendas, compare venues, and automate vendor outreach. Live event execution, contract negotiation, on-site problem solving, and client relationship management keep experienced planners valuable when events actually happen.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 11-1021

General and Operations Managers

AI dashboards, forecasting, and reporting tools automate much of the information work of operations management. Cross-functional coordination, staffing decisions, supplier management, and accountability for results keep the role human-led.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
50
Automation
22%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 11-2022

Sales Managers

AI forecasting, pipeline analytics, and outreach automation change how sales teams are run. Quota accountability, coaching, deal strategy, pricing decisions, and cross-department negotiation keep sales management a human performance role.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
24%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 11-3121

Human Resources Managers

People analytics, policy drafting, and workforce reporting are increasingly AI-assisted. Employee relations judgment, labor negotiation, sensitive investigations, and organizational strategy keep HR leadership human-accountable.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
24%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 11-3021

IT Managers

AI operations tooling automates monitoring, reporting, and first-line support workflows. Vendor negotiation, security accountability, delivery ownership, and technology strategy keep IT leadership augmentation-led — and AI adoption itself is now part of the job.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
24%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 15-1211

Computer Systems Analysts

Requirements documentation, system diagrams, and cost-benefit drafts are heavily AI-assisted. Needs discovery, stakeholder translation, integration judgment, and implementation troubleshooting keep the analyst function valuable.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
62
Automation
36%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 17-2112

Industrial Engineers

Data analysis, layout drafting, and standards documentation are increasingly AI-assisted. Process observation, human factors judgment, cross-functional implementation, and accountability for efficiency outcomes keep the role firmly augmented.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 17-2199

Robotics Engineers

The engineers designing robotic and automated systems benefit directly from the automation wave. Simulation, control design, and embedded code are AI-accelerated, while system integration, safety design, and physical testing keep the work deeply hands-on.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
56
Automation
28%
Augment
74%
Low
SOC 27-1011

Art Directors

Generative tools produce layout variations, mockups, and visual explorations instantly, compressing production layers beneath this role. Creative direction, client interpretation, team leadership, and final aesthetic accountability remain the job's core.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
66
Automation
38%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 27-1013

Fine Artists and Illustrators

Generative image models produce competent illustration at near-zero cost, flooding the commission and stock markets that sustain many working artists. Distinctive style, client collaboration, physical media, and artistic reputation remain the differentiators.

Displacement pressure 55
Exposure
72
Automation
42%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 27-2012

Producers and Directors

AI video tools compress editing, previsualization, and script drafting, changing production economics. Set leadership, talent direction, budget accountability, rights negotiation, and creative decision-making under pressure remain human work.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
54
Automation
26%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 43-3011

Bill and Account Collectors

Locating accounts, scripted payment reminders, and status recording are exactly what AI voice agents and automated dialing now handle. Negotiating repayment plans, handling disputes, and regulated consumer interactions keep some human collectors necessary.

Displacement pressure 76
Exposure
82
Automation
66%
Augment
26%
High
SOC 43-9041

Insurance Claims Processing Clerks

Claim form preparation, completeness review, amount calculation, and file posting are structured workflows that claims automation platforms now process end-to-end. Missing-information follow-up and coverage questions remain the human residue.

Displacement pressure 78
Exposure
84
Automation
68%
Augment
28%
High
SOC 43-6013

Medical Secretaries

Patient scheduling, claim forms, records routing, and transcription are being absorbed by portals, AI phone agents, and ambient documentation. Patient intake judgment, privacy handling, and clinical-office coordination keep the role present but shrinking.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
74
Automation
52%
Augment
40%
High
SOC 43-5071

Shipping and Receiving Clerks

Shipment documentation, rate computation, and record keeping are increasingly automated by warehouse and transportation management systems. Verifying contents, resolving damages and discrepancies, and coordinating carriers keep a human layer.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
68
Automation
50%
Augment
32%
Moderate
SOC 43-5052

Postal Service Mail Carriers

Route optimization and sorting automation change how routes are planned, and mail volume keeps declining. Walking and driving routes, porch delivery, customer contact, and judgment about dogs, weather, and access remain physical last-mile work.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
52
Automation
40%
Augment
24%
Moderate
SOC 35-1011

Chefs and Head Cooks

Recipe analysis, costing, and inventory estimates are increasingly software-assisted, but menu creation, taste judgment, staff leadership, and live kitchen execution remain craft work. Kitchen robotics target chain-line tasks, not chef judgment.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
14%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 39-5012

Hairdressers and Cosmetologists

Cutting, coloring, and styling hair is physical, tactile, licensed work performed on a person in a chair — among the least automatable tasks in the economy. AI touches booking, style inspiration, and product recommendation, not the service itself.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
6%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 39-9011

Childcare Workers

Supervising, feeding, comforting, and teaching young children is trust-based physical care that no software performs. AI touches lesson planning and administrative record keeping, while safety, attachment, and developmental judgment remain human.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 39-9031

Fitness Trainers

AI workout apps generate exercise plans cheaply, competing with routine program writing. Live correction of form, motivation, injury-aware adaptation, and the accountability of a scheduled human session keep trainers differentiated.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
42
Automation
22%
Augment
50%
Moderate
SOC 37-2011

Janitors and Cleaners

Robotic floor scrubbers handle large open corridors, but most cleaning is variable physical work across cluttered, unpredictable spaces. Minor repairs, hazard spotting, supply management, and security checks keep human cleaners standard in most buildings.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
26
Automation
18%
Augment
18%
Low
SOC 37-3011

Landscaping and Groundskeeping Workers

Robotic mowers handle flat residential lawns, but pruning, planting, irrigation work, and terrain-variable grounds care resist automation. Equipment operation, plant knowledge, and site judgment keep landscaping crews busy in a tight labor market.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
24
Automation
16%
Augment
20%
Low
SOC 47-2061

Construction Laborers

Site preparation, material handling, and demolition are physical work in unstructured environments where robotics remain primitive. Layout tools, laser guidance, and equipment automation assist the work without removing the worker.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
26
Automation
18%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 47-2181

Roofers

Inspecting, repairing, and installing roofs is elevated, hazardous, variable physical work that drones can photograph but not perform. Measurement and estimation software assists bidding while installation and repair remain manual.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
16
Automation
8%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 47-2231

Solar Panel Installers

Mounting panels, running wiring, and weather-sealing roofs is physical, code-governed work on unique structures. Design and layout software accelerates system planning, but installation, testing, and troubleshooting stay on the roof.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2073

Operating Engineers and Heavy Equipment Operators

Autonomous graders and remote-controlled dozers are real on large, uniform sites, but most equipment work happens around utilities, crews, and unpredictable terrain. GPS grade-control and telematics make skilled operators more precise, not obsolete.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
30
Automation
22%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 49-3023

Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics

Computerized diagnostics and AI-guided repair plans make finding faults faster, but vehicles still need hands-on disassembly, repair, and testing. Electric and software-heavy vehicles raise the value of technicians who master new systems.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
30
Automation
14%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-3011

Aircraft Mechanics and Service Technicians

Predictive maintenance analytics and AI-assisted diagnostics flag aircraft problems earlier, but certified inspection, repair, and return-to-service sign-off are regulated physical tasks. Aviation safety rules make human certification mandatory.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
26
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-9071

Maintenance and Repair Workers, General

Every building needs someone who can diagnose a noise, repair a pump, patch drywall, and adjust a boiler in the same week. Smart-building sensors help prioritize work orders; the varied physical repair work itself resists automation almost entirely.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
28
Automation
14%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-9081

Wind Turbine Service Technicians

Technicians climb towers to troubleshoot mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical systems in remote locations — work no robot performs. Sensor data and predictive analytics direct them to problems earlier, which increases the value of skilled field response.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
24
Automation
12%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 51-9161

Computer Numerically Controlled Tool Operators

CNC operators work alongside the automation itself: loading workpieces, monitoring runs, listening for tool wear, and adjusting feeds. Lights-out machining absorbs pure button-pushing, while setup judgment, quality checks, and malfunction response stay human.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
52
Automation
42%
Augment
34%
Moderate
SOC 51-9061

Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers

Machine vision inspects products faster and more consistently than human eyes for standardized defects, putting real pressure on visual inspection work. Calibration, complex judgment calls, root-cause reporting, and quality-system accountability keep skilled inspectors relevant.

Displacement pressure 54
Exposure
60
Automation
48%
Augment
40%
Moderate
SOC 51-2092

Team Assemblers

Assembly line work is the historical heart of factory automation, and collaborative robots keep taking repetitive stations. Line balancing, quality checks, changeover judgment, and rotation across tasks keep human assemblers present in most plants.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
46
Automation
38%
Augment
24%
Moderate
SOC 53-3054

Taxi Drivers

Ride-hail apps already restructured this occupation, and robotaxis now compete directly on the same urban routes. Airport complexity, passenger assistance, local knowledge, and irregular trips keep human drivers in the mix, but the trajectory is clearly downward.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
60
Automation
48%
Augment
26%
High
SOC 53-2011

Airline Pilots, Copilots, and Flight Engineers

Autopilot has flown planes for decades, yet pilot demand keeps rising. Emergency judgment, crew coordination, weather decision-making, and legal command authority make piloting a case study in why automation assists rather than replaces certified humans.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
34
Automation
18%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 53-2031

Flight Attendants

Flight attendants are certified safety professionals first and service workers second: evacuations, medical emergencies, and threat monitoring at 35,000 feet cannot be automated. Service efficiencies change cabin staffing ratios slowly, but the safety mandate persists.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
24
Automation
10%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 53-2021

Air Traffic Controllers

Decision-support tools help controllers sequence traffic and detect conflicts, but every instruction to a pilot carries human legal authority. Emergency handling, judgment under time pressure, and system-wide coordination keep controllers indispensable.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 29-1215

Family Medicine Physicians

AI documentation and diagnostic-support tools reduce the administrative load that drives physician burnout. Diagnosis of undifferentiated patients, chronic disease management, procedures, and the longitudinal patient relationship keep primary care deeply human.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
42
Automation
16%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 29-1223

Psychiatrists

AI chatbots now offer conversation that feels therapeutic, creating real public debate. Medication management, risk assessment, complex diagnosis, and legal duties around patient safety keep psychiatric care licensed and human-accountable.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
36
Automation
12%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 29-1224

Radiologists

Radiology is the specialty AI was predicted to eliminate first — and instead it became the specialty most transformed by augmentation. AI triages studies, drafts measurements, and flags findings, while radiologists handle ambiguous cases, interventional procedures, and final diagnostic accountability.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
72
Automation
42%
Augment
74%
Moderate
SOC 29-1021

Dentists, General

AI imaging analysis helps detect caries and plan treatments, but drilling, filling, extracting, and fitting are surgical tasks performed by hand in a patient's mouth. Diagnosis support augments; the procedure is the profession.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 29-1292

Dental Hygienists

Cleaning teeth, taking x-rays, screening for disease, and coaching patients on oral health are hands-on licensed tasks. AI imaging review and scheduling tools streamline the office around hygienists without touching the clinical work.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 29-1051

Pharmacists

Dispensing robots and central-fill operations automate the counting-and-labeling core of retail pharmacy. Medication therapy review, drug interaction judgment, immunizations, and clinical consultation are where pharmacist value is moving.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
52
Automation
30%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 29-1071

Physician Assistants

PAs diagnose, prescribe, perform procedures, and manage patient panels — clinical judgment work that AI supports but cannot own. Documentation tools reduce charting burden while expanding scope-of-practice laws keep demand surging.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
40
Automation
15%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 29-1171

Nurse Practitioners

NPs diagnose, treat, and prescribe independently in most states — full clinical accountability that AI tools augment rather than assume. Documentation relief, decision support, and care-gap flagging make each NP more productive amid a primary care shortage.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
38
Automation
14%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 29-1123

Physical Therapists

Evaluation, manual therapy, and individualized program design are embodied clinical work. AI exercise apps handle generic home programs, but assessment of movement dysfunction, hands-on treatment, and clinical reasoning stay with the therapist.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 29-1131

Veterinarians

Examining, diagnosing, and operating on animals that cannot describe their symptoms is pattern-rich but deeply physical work. AI imaging and record tools assist, while surgery, euthanasia counseling, and multi-species clinical judgment keep vets human.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
30
Automation
10%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 29-2043

Paramedics

Advanced life support in driveways, highways, and living rooms is the opposite of automatable work: chaotic environments, physical patient handling, and split-second clinical judgment. AI dispatch and documentation tools assist the workflow around the care.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
20
Automation
7%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 29-2011

Medical and Clinical Laboratory Technologists

Automated analyzers already run most routine tests, and AI aids result review — real automation pressure on manual bench work. Result validation, quality assurance, instrument troubleshooting, and complex manual testing keep certified technologists essential.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
56
Automation
40%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 31-1131

Nursing Assistants

Feeding, bathing, repositioning, and comforting patients is physical, relational care delivered at the bedside. Monitoring technology watches for falls and vitals changes, but lifting, turning, and comforting human beings remains entirely manual.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
6%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 31-1121

Home Health and Personal Care Aides

Helping elderly and disabled people bathe, dress, eat, and stay safely at home is the fastest-growing job category in America — and the least automatable. Remote monitoring and AI check-in calls supplement but cannot substitute for physical presence.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
16
Automation
6%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 19-3033

Clinical and Counseling Psychologists

AI therapy chatbots generate headlines, but assessment, diagnosis, risk evaluation, and the therapeutic relationship are licensed clinical work with legal accountability. Testing interpretation, treatment planning, and crisis judgment keep psychologists human-centered.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
38
Automation
13%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 11-9111

Medical and Health Services Managers

The people deciding how AI gets deployed in hospitals are healthcare administrators. Analytics automate reporting and scheduling, while compliance accountability, staff leadership, budget ownership, and clinical-technology governance keep the role expanding.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
24%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 25-2011

Preschool Teachers

Teaching three- and four-year-olds is developmental, physical, and relational: managing feelings, guiding play, and spotting delays. AI can draft lesson ideas, but attachment, safety, and hands-on early learning happen between a teacher and a child.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
26
Automation
8%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 25-2022

Middle School Teachers

Lesson prep, differentiated materials, and grading are heavily AI-augmentable. What defines middle school teaching is managing adolescents through their most volatile developmental years — classroom culture, motivation, and mentorship that no tool delivers.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
12%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 25-2031

High School Teachers

AI writes serviceable lesson plans, practice sets, and essay feedback, transforming preparation and grading for subject-specialist teachers. Deep content knowledge, AP and dual-enrollment rigor, college-prep mentorship, and classroom culture remain the human core.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
40
Automation
14%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 25-2056

Special Education Teachers

Individualized education programs, behavioral intervention, and one-on-one instruction for students with disabilities are legally mandated, relationship-intensive work. AI helps draft IEP documentation, but the specialized teaching and legal accountability stay human.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
8%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 21-1012

Educational, Guidance, and Career Counselors

Career quizzes, college list building, and schedule planning are increasingly AI-assisted. Crisis intervention, abuse identification, mental health support, and the trusted-adult relationship for struggling students remain deeply human work.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
38
Automation
14%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 43-5031

Public Safety Telecommunicators

AI transcription and call-triage tools are arriving in 911 centers, assisting with documentation and non-emergency call deflection. Life-or-death triage, calming panicked callers, and coordinating multi-agency response keep certified dispatchers essential.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
48
Automation
28%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 33-3021

Detectives and Criminal Investigators

AI accelerates record searches, evidence organization, and pattern analysis across case data. Interviewing witnesses, reading deception, securing scenes, and building prosecutable cases remain judgment work with legal accountability.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
18%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 33-3012

Correctional Officers and Jailers

Surveillance technology and AI monitoring change how facilities watch housing units, but custody means physical presence: searches, escorts, dispute settlement, and emergency response inside secure facilities cannot be delegated to cameras.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
24
Automation
10%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 33-9093

Transportation Security Screeners

AI baggage scanners already flag threats in carry-on images, making this a real frontline of human-AI teaming: algorithms detect, officers decide. Pat-downs, alarm resolution, passenger management, and breach response keep screeners on every lane.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
46
Automation
32%
Augment
36%
Moderate
SOC 21-1021

Child, Family, and School Social Workers

Case documentation, eligibility paperwork, and report drafting are exactly the administrative burden AI can reduce. Home visits, abuse assessment, crisis counseling, and court testimony require presence, judgment, and legal accountability.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
16%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 13-2031

Budget Analysts

Compiling budget reports, checking estimates for completeness, and cost analysis are heavily AI-assistable workflows. Interpreting directives, advising managers on allocations, and defending budgets to fund-granting authorities keep the judgment layer human.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
64
Automation
38%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 13-2061

Financial Examiners

Document review, compliance checking, and examination report drafting are strongly AI-augmentable. On-site examination judgment, meetings with institution leadership, and solvency recommendations keep examiners in regulatory authority.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
58
Automation
32%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 13-2054

Financial Risk Specialists

Risk quantification, scenario generation, and report production are deeply AI-augmentable. Model design judgment, communicating uncertainty to decision-makers, and governing the AI models themselves keep risk specialists on the right side of automation.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
60
Automation
34%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 13-1051

Cost Estimators

AI takeoff tools now read blueprints and generate quantity estimates automatically, pressuring the calculation core of this role. Site judgment, subcontractor negotiation, scope ambiguity, and bid strategy keep experienced estimators valuable.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
66
Automation
42%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-2023

Appraisers and Assessors of Real Estate

Automated valuation models price standard homes instantly, squeezing appraisal volume for routine properties. Complex properties, legal disputes, unique assets, and the certified signature that lenders and courts require keep appraisers necessary.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
62
Automation
40%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 13-1141

Compensation, Benefits, and Job Analysis Specialists

Salary benchmarking, job description drafting, and benefits data analysis are highly AI-assistable. Pay equity judgment, compliance with rapidly changing transparency laws, union negotiation support, and program design keep specialists valuable.

Displacement pressure 50
Exposure
66
Automation
40%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-1023

Buyers and Purchasing Agents

E-sourcing platforms and AI price analysis automate bid collection, specification drafting, and supplier comparison. Negotiation, supplier relationship management, quality judgment, and strategic sourcing decisions keep buyers valuable.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 41-9031

Sales Engineers

AI generates proposal drafts, RFP responses, and technical documentation quickly, compressing the writing layer of technical sales. Solution architecture, live demonstrations, customer-specific problem solving, and trusted technical advisory keep sales engineers in demand.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
54
Automation
28%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 19-3011

Economists

Data compilation, literature review, and draft analysis are heavily AI-accelerated. Research framing, model identification judgment, policy interpretation, and defending economic conclusions to skeptical audiences keep the profession augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
60
Automation
32%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 11-3071

Transportation, Storage, and Distribution Managers

Route optimization, inventory analytics, and carrier performance reporting are increasingly automated. Warehouse and fleet operations leadership, carrier negotiation, safety compliance, and disruption response keep distribution management human-led.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
54
Automation
28%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 15-1241

Computer Network Architects

AI-assisted design tools generate network diagrams, configuration drafts, and capacity projections. Enterprise architecture judgment, security design, vendor evaluation, and accountability for network resilience keep architects in design authority.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 15-1243

Database Architects

AI's appetite for clean, well-structured data makes database architecture more strategic, not less. Modeling tools and code generators accelerate schema drafting, while enterprise data design, integration strategy, and governance standards keep architects in demand.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 17-2011

Aerospace Engineers

Simulation, design iteration, and technical documentation are increasingly AI-accelerated. Prototype testing, certification analysis, safety-critical design judgment, and clearance-protected program work keep aerospace engineering augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
50
Automation
24%
Augment
66%
Low
SOC 17-2031

Bioengineers and Biomedical Engineers

AI accelerates modeling, simulation, and research documentation across medical device work. Regulatory submissions, clinical collaboration, bench testing, and design controls for devices that go inside human bodies keep the role rigorously human-accountable.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 17-2041

Chemical Engineers

Process modeling, data analysis, and cost reporting are increasingly AI-assisted. Pilot plant judgment, safety procedure design, plant troubleshooting, and scale-up decisions for physical chemical processes keep the role augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
50
Automation
24%
Augment
64%
Low
SOC 17-2081

Environmental Engineers

Environmental data analysis, report drafting, and modeling are increasingly AI-assisted. Site assessment, remediation design, regulatory negotiation, and accountability for cleanup outcomes keep environmental engineering grounded in fieldwork and judgment.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
48
Automation
22%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 17-3024

Robotics Technicians

Every robot installed in a factory needs someone to install, program, calibrate, and repair it — that is this job. Technicians build, maintain, and troubleshoot the automation displacing other roles, putting them on the winning side of the transition.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
42
Automation
24%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 19-1042

Medical Scientists

AI literature synthesis, protein-structure prediction, and data analysis are transforming research speed. Experiment design, laboratory technique, grant strategy, and the judgment to trust a novel result keep medical research human-led.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 19-1041

Epidemiologists

Surveillance data analysis, statistical modeling, and report writing are heavily AI-augmentable. Outbreak investigation, study design, field interviews, and communicating uncertainty to policymakers and the public keep epidemiology human-anchored.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 19-2041

Environmental Scientists and Specialists

Environmental data synthesis, monitoring analysis, and report drafting are strongly AI-augmentable. Field sampling, regulatory interpretation, site inspection, and scientific guidance to agencies and industry keep the role grounded.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
54
Automation
28%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 27-2041

Music Directors and Composers

Generative music tools now produce competent background scores and jingles on demand, pressuring commercial composition volume. Film scoring craft, ensemble direction, live arrangement, and an original musical voice remain the differentiators.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
70
Automation
40%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 27-4011

Audio and Video Technicians

AI tools automate editing passes, switching, and audio cleanup in post-production. Live event work — rigging, mixing in real time, troubleshooting on site — plus system design and client-facing production support keep technicians busy.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
56
Automation
34%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 27-4031

Camera Operators, Television, Video, and Film

AI video generation creates footage from text, and automated production systems handle multi-camera studio switching. On-location framing, live sports and news coverage, complex camera movement, and director collaboration in unpredictable environments keep operators shooting.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
58
Automation
36%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 27-1021

Commercial and Industrial Designers

Generative tools produce product concept sketches and renderings in seconds, compressing the ideation layer. Feasibility judgment, manufacturing constraints, safety evaluation, and engineering collaboration keep industrial designers accountable for what actually ships.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
62
Automation
36%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 11-2032

Public Relations Managers

AI drafts press releases, executive speeches, and media kits instantly, compressing the production layer of PR teams. Crisis communication strategy, media relationships, executive counsel, and reputation accountability keep PR leadership human-led.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
62
Automation
34%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 43-4031

Court, Municipal, and License Clerks

Filing court documents, recording minutes, and verifying application completeness are structured records workflows that e-filing and document automation absorb steadily. Procedural knowledge, records accountability, and public counter service remain for now.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
78
Automation
62%
Augment
28%
High
SOC 43-4061

Eligibility Interviewers, Government Programs

Determining benefit eligibility is a rules-based workflow that government modernization projects increasingly automate end-to-end. Complex case investigation, applicant interviews with unclear documentation, and fraud flags keep human reviewers in the loop.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
80
Automation
62%
Augment
32%
High
SOC 43-4041

Credit Authorizers, Checkers, and Clerks

Evaluating credit records against predetermined standards is precisely what automated underwriting does at scale. This occupation is one of the clearest historical examples of software absorbing a rules-based decision role, and its decline continues.

Displacement pressure 80
Exposure
86
Automation
72%
Augment
22%
Very High
SOC 43-4011

Brokerage Clerks

Documenting trades, computing dividends and fees, and coordinating certificate transfers are the core of a back-office workflow that straight-through processing automated decades ago and AI is now finishing. Account problem resolution is the remaining human task.

Displacement pressure 76
Exposure
84
Automation
68%
Augment
24%
High
SOC 43-9022

Word Processors and Typists

Producing formatted documents from drafts and dictation was already contracting before generative AI; tools that draft, format, and transcribe in one step remove most remaining demand. This is one of the clearest full-substitution cases in the clerical family.

Displacement pressure 84
Exposure
90
Automation
78%
Augment
18%
Very High
SOC 43-2011

Switchboard Operators, Including Answering Service

Answering and routing calls was one of the first office jobs automation eliminated, and AI phone agents now handle the answering-service remainder with natural conversation. Emergency alarm monitoring and visitor management are the thin human layer left.

Displacement pressure 82
Exposure
88
Automation
74%
Augment
20%
Very High
SOC 43-5061

Production, Planning, and Expediting Clerks

Distributing schedules, compiling production reports, and tracking materials are workflows that manufacturing execution systems automate. Expediting shortages, revising schedules around disruptions, and coordinating across departments keep human expediters valuable.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
72
Automation
52%
Augment
40%
High
SOC 41-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Retail Sales Workers

Scheduling software, inventory analytics, and AI loss-prevention cameras automate much of the supervisor's information work. Coaching staff, resolving escalations, enforcing standards, and running a physical store keep first-line leadership human.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
54
Automation
34%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 41-3091

Sales Representatives of Services

AI prospecting, proposal drafting, and CRM automation compress the volume work of services sales. Consultative discovery, negotiation, ongoing client support, and trust in complex service purchases keep relationship sellers valuable.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
56
Automation
32%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 41-9021

Real Estate Brokers

AI listing tools, valuation models, and virtual tours compress the information work agents and brokers once monopolized. Transaction negotiation, legal compliance accountability, agent supervision, and office management keep licensed brokers in the deal.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
54
Automation
30%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 11-9051

Food Service Managers

Scheduling, inventory forecasting, and sales analytics are increasingly automated by restaurant platforms. Running a live service, coaching staff through a rush, enforcing food safety, and owning unit profitability keep managers on the floor.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
46
Automation
24%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 39-5011

Barbers

Cutting hair and shaving beards with clippers and razors is licensed handwork on a person in a chair — among the least automatable services that exist. Booking apps and style-inspiration tools change how clients arrive, never the cut itself.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
16
Automation
5%
Augment
24%
Low
SOC 39-4031

Morticians, Undertakers, and Funeral Arrangers

Arranging funerals, preparing remains, and guiding grieving families through decisions is licensed, emotionally delicate work. AI helps with paperwork, obituary drafts, and scheduling; the care of the deceased and comfort of families stays human.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
28
Automation
12%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-4011

Construction and Building Inspectors

Drone imagery and AI plan review can flag potential code issues from drawings, but inspectors walk sites, measure structures, and exercise legal authority to stop work. Physical verification and code judgment under liability keep the role human.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
44
Automation
22%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 49-3031

Bus and Truck Mechanics and Diesel Engine Specialists

Fleet telematics and predictive maintenance flag diesel problems before breakdowns, changing when trucks come into the bay — not who repairs them. Overhauling engines, aligning wheels, and troubleshooting heavy equipment remain hands-on work.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
28
Automation
14%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-9051

Electrical Power-Line Installers and Repairers

Climbing poles and stringing conductors on live infrastructure is hazardous physical work no robot performs. Smart-grid sensors help utilities locate faults faster, which directs line crews to problems — the repair itself still requires a bucket truck and a crew.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
32%
Low
SOC 51-4111

Tool and Die Makers

CAD/CAM software and CNC machining have already automated much of routine tool production, which is why this trade shrank. What remains is high-skill work: complex dies, precision fitting, and repair judgment that shops struggle to hire for.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
32
Automation
18%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-3011

Bakers

Industrial bakeries automate mixing, portioning, and baking at scale, but artisan and retail baking depends on sensory judgment, hand shaping, and decorating that machines handle poorly. Recipe development and quality judgment remain human craft.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
28
Automation
18%
Augment
24%
Low
SOC 51-8013

Power Plant Operators

Control rooms are already highly automated, which is why this occupation has contracted — but operators remain legally accountable for safe power generation. Abnormal-condition response, equipment monitoring judgment, and regulatory compliance keep humans at the boards.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
46
Automation
34%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 19-3034

School Psychologists

Scoring tests and drafting reports are heavily AI-assistable, but administering assessments, observing children, designing IEP evaluations, and advising on crisis situations are licensed clinical-educational work with legal accountability.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
18%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 11-9032

Education Administrators, Kindergarten through Secondary

Scheduling, report generation, and performance dashboards automate much of a principal's information work. Instructional leadership, teacher evaluation, discipline judgment, parent trust, and accountability for a school's outcomes keep the role deeply human.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
18%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 25-4031

Library Technicians

Circulation, cataloging support, and routine reference inquiries are increasingly handled by self-checkout and AI search. Helping patrons with technology, running children's programs, and maintaining equipment keep library technicians useful.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
68
Automation
48%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 25-3011

Adult Basic Education and ESL Instructors

AI language apps offer free, unlimited conversation practice, competing directly with basic language drills. Classroom facilitation, literacy instruction for low-skill adults, cultural bridge-building, and workforce preparation keep human instructors necessary.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
52
Automation
24%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 25-2032

Career and Technical Education Teachers, Secondary

As AI pushes students toward hands-on careers, the teachers who instruct welding, healthcare, culinary, and IT pathways become more strategic, not less. Shop and lab instruction, safety supervision, and industry placement are irreducibly physical and relational.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
12%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 21-1092

Probation Officers and Correctional Treatment Specialists

Risk-assessment algorithms now score recidivism risk, sparking real debate about algorithmic justice. Field supervision, violation investigation, treatment referral, and court recommendations keep officers exercising judgment the algorithms only inform.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
36
Automation
15%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 21-1014

Mental Health Counselors

AI chatbots now simulate therapeutic conversation, but crisis intervention, suicide risk assessment, treatment planning, and the licensed therapeutic relationship are clinical work with legal accountability. Demand vastly exceeds counselor supply.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
34
Automation
11%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 23-1023

Judges, Magistrate Judges, and Magistrates

AI legal research and drafting tools assist chambers work, and risk algorithms spark sentencing debates — but adjudication is constitutionally human. Evidence rulings, jury instruction, sentencing discretion, and public legitimacy of judgments are unassignable to software.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
32
Automation
10%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 11-9161

Emergency Management Directors

Predictive modeling, damage assessment tools, and AI situation reports accelerate emergency planning. Ordering evacuations, coordinating agencies under chaos, and standing accountable for community safety decisions keep directors human-commanded.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 29-1031

Dietitians and Nutritionists

AI meal-plan apps generate decent generic plans, pressuring the advice layer of nutrition work. Medical nutrition therapy, lab-result interpretation, eating-disorder care, and counseling around real eating behavior keep credentialed dietitians distinct.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
46
Automation
22%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 29-1122

Occupational Therapists

OT work is teaching people to button shirts, hold jobs, and live independently after injury or illness — adaptive, hands-on, and relationship-driven. Documentation tools reduce note burden; activity-based therapy itself cannot be digitized.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 29-1127

Speech-Language Pathologists

AI speech tools can drill articulation and generate practice materials, but diagnosing swallowing disorders, aphasia, and childhood language delays — and coaching patients through them — is licensed clinical work with strong school demand.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
30
Automation
10%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 29-1221

Pediatricians, General

AI symptom checkers answer parents' midnight questions, but pediatric diagnosis depends on examining children who cannot describe symptoms, tracking development over years, and earning family trust. Documentation tools relieve charting, not the exam room.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
36
Automation
13%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 29-2012

Medical and Clinical Laboratory Technicians

Technicians run the routine tests automated analyzers increasingly own: sample loading, standard assays, and result entry. Specimen collection, equipment calibration, and abnormal-flag handling keep a human tier, but the role is more exposed than the technologist level above it.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
58
Automation
44%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 29-2035

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technologists

AI reconstruction makes MRI scans faster and protocol selection smarter — but it works on images a technologist must first acquire. Patient safety screening, positioning, contrast injection, and claustrophobia management keep the role hands-on.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
20%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 29-2042

Emergency Medical Technicians

EMTs deliver basic life support in uncontrolled environments — lifting patients, immobilizing spines, driving ambulances, reassuring families. AI dispatch and charting tools organize the work around the care; the physical response is the job.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 29-2056

Veterinary Technologists and Technicians

Restraining a nervous dog, monitoring anesthesia, drawing blood from a cat — vet tech work is physical animal handling layered with clinical skill. AI helps with records and radiograph review; it cannot hold the patient.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 31-9011

Massage Therapists

Massage is licensed manual therapy: reading tissue, adjusting pressure, and treating pain through hands-on work. AI touches booking and exercise-plan handouts; the treatment itself is irreducibly physical and trust-based.

Displacement pressure 8
Exposure
12
Automation
3%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 31-9097

Phlebotomists

Drawing blood is a physical skill performed on anxious patients in every clinic and lab — vein selection, patient calming, sterile technique, and specimen integrity. Automation handles the analysis downstream, not the needle.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
20
Automation
8%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 31-1122

Personal Care Aides

Helping people cook, dress, bathe, and stay independent at home is companionship-plus-physical-care work. Remote monitoring and AI check-ins help agencies supervise care, but the job exists because a person needs hands and presence, not software.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
16
Automation
6%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 25-2012

Kindergarten Teachers

Kindergarten teaching is licensed instruction wrapped in childcare: phonics lessons share the day with tying shoes and managing tears. AI can draft lesson materials, but five-year-olds need a physically present, licensed adult — the job's core is untouchable.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
9%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 25-3031

Substitute Teachers, Short-Term

Substitute teaching is physical classroom coverage on short notice: attendance, behavior management, and keeping a room of students safe and on-task. Districts cannot staff these pools today; no software supervises a classroom.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 21-1011

Substance Abuse and Behavioral Disorder Counselors

AI support chatbots offer 24/7 check-ins, but recovery work runs on accountability relationships: relapse intervention, group facilitation, family counseling, and court coordination. Demand vastly exceeds counselor supply.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
32
Automation
10%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 21-1013

Marriage and Family Therapists

Couples and family therapy depends on reading a room of conflicting people in real time — alliance-building, de-escalation, and systemic judgment no chatbot performs. AI tools handle notes and between-session worksheets.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
28
Automation
8%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 33-9021

Private Detectives and Investigators

AI search and OSINT tools have transformed the research side of investigation — background checks, record location, financial tracing. Surveillance, interviewing, undercover work, and courtroom testimony remain stubbornly physical and human.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
52
Automation
30%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 43-4181

Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents

Booking, fare computation, and reservation confirmation are exactly what online booking and AI travel agents automate. Airport counter work — irregular operations, baggage tracing, passenger assistance — keeps a reduced human presence.

Displacement pressure 72
Exposure
80
Automation
62%
Augment
28%
High
SOC 43-5021

Couriers and Messengers

Routing and dispatch apps already run this job's logistics, and delivery drones target the same short hops. Medical specimens, legal documents, and signed-chain deliveries keep humans carrying items where custody and timing matter.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
46
Automation
32%
Augment
26%
Moderate
SOC 11-2021

Advertising and Promotions Managers

Generative tools now produce ad copy, layout variations, and media plans at scale, compressing agency production layers. Media-buying judgment, creative direction, client trust, and campaign accountability keep advertising leadership human-led.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
66
Automation
38%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 11-9141

Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers

Tenant portals, AI leasing assistants, and maintenance ticketing automate the administrative half of property management. Buildings remain physical: inspections, vendor coordination, dispute resolution, and emergency response keep managers on-site.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
50
Automation
26%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 23-1022

Arbitrators, Mediators, and Conciliators

Online dispute resolution platforms automate simple claims, but mediation works because a trusted neutral reads both parties and finds the deal. Legal analysis tools assist preparation; the negotiation room stays human.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
12%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 19-5011

Occupational Health and Safety Specialists

Sensor networks and AI monitoring detect hazards and log exposures automatically, changing how safety data gets collected. Inspections, incident investigation, corrective-action authority, and regulatory defense keep specialists accountable on site.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
52
Automation
28%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 15-1299

Penetration Testers

AI tools now run vulnerability scans and draft exploit paths, compressing the routine reconnaissance layer. Creative attack chaining, business-logic flaws, social engineering, and accountable sign-off on security posture keep human testers essential.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
58
Automation
32%
Augment
74%
Low
SOC 19-2031

Chemists

AI synthesis planners and literature tools accelerate the analysis and design layers of chemistry. Bench work — running reactions, maintaining instruments, validating materials — plus safety accountability keep chemists laboratory-bound.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
50
Automation
26%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 19-2021

Meteorologists

AI weather models now beat conventional forecasting on many benchmarks — the honest headline. Forecaster judgment on high-stakes local events, warning communication, and interpreting model disagreement keep meteorologists in the loop.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
62
Automation
36%
Augment
74%
Moderate
SOC 19-4092

Forensic Science Technicians

AI pattern tools assist fingerprint and image comparison, but every forensic result feeds a courtroom: chain of custody, documented methods, and testimony under cross-examination keep certified technicians accountable for the evidence.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
44
Automation
22%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 27-2021

Athletes and Sports Competitors

AI transforms everything around elite sport — scouting models, training load optimization, tactical analysis — but the product is a human body competing live. No audience pays to watch software play, making this the purest resilience case on the site.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
20
Automation
7%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 27-2022

Coaches and Scouts

AI video breakdown, scouting models, and training-load analytics now handle much of sport's information work. Practice leadership, motivation, in-game judgment, and athlete development relationships keep coaching human.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
20%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 35-2021

Food Preparation Workers

Washing, peeling, cutting, portioning, and sanitizing across variable ingredients and kitchens is physical work robots handle only in narrow, high-volume formats. Temperature logging and prep-list software assist; hands do the prep.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
34
Automation
26%
Augment
16%
Moderate
SOC 37-2012

Maids and Housekeeping Cleaners

Making beds, scrubbing bathrooms, and restocking rooms is physical work in unique, cluttered spaces that cleaning robots cannot navigate. Assignment apps optimize routes and schedules; the room itself still needs a person.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
24
Automation
16%
Augment
16%
Low
SOC 29-1011

Chiropractors

Spinal adjustment is licensed hands-on work: evaluating posture and joint function, then correcting it with manual pressure. AI supports imaging review and exercise-plan drafting; the adjustment itself, and the licensure behind it, stay human.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
22
Automation
7%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 29-1023

Orthodontists

AI treatment planning and direct-to-consumer aligner companies have changed orthodontics more than most specialties — software now proposes tooth movements. Appliance fitting, in-person adjustment, complication management, and specialist accountability keep the role licensed and hands-on.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
28
Automation
10%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 29-1041

Optometrists

AI retinal screening reads fundus photos for diabetic eye disease, automating a diagnostic slice. Comprehensive exams, refraction, contact lens fitting, and surgical co-management keep optometrists as the accountable primary eye-care provider.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
32
Automation
12%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 29-1126

Respiratory Therapists

Managing ventilators, intubating patients, and responding to code situations is bedside critical care. Monitoring alarms and AI-assisted weaning protocols support decisions, but the therapist at the bedside adjusts treatment against live physiology.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 29-1151

Nurse Anesthetists

Anesthesia information systems and smart pumps automate monitoring records, but inducing, maintaining, and emerging patients from anesthesia is minute-to-minute clinical judgment with life-safety accountability. One of the most automation-resistant clinical roles.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
9%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 29-1181

Audiologists

Over-the-counter hearing aids and app-based hearing tests compress the retail dispensing layer of audiology. Diagnostic evaluation, cochlear implant programming, balance disorders, and pediatric fitting keep clinical audiology specialized.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
34
Automation
14%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 29-1212

Cardiologists

AI ECG interpretation and imaging analysis are among the most validated clinical AI tools — and cardiologists deploy them. Catheterization, device implantation, emergency cardiac care, and risk judgment keep the specialty procedural and accountable.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
40
Automation
15%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 29-1213

Dermatologists

AI skin-image classifiers match specialists on narrow lesion benchmarks — the famous case study. Full-body exams, biopsy and surgery decisions, cosmetic procedures, and atypical presentations keep dermatologists diagnostically accountable.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
46
Automation
20%
Augment
64%
Low
SOC 29-1214

Emergency Medicine Physicians

The ER is where undifferentiated chaos arrives: trauma, overdoses, chest pain at 3 a.m. Triage algorithms and documentation tools help, but stabilizing critical patients, procedures under pressure, and disposition judgment keep the specialty human.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
30
Automation
10%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 29-1242

Orthopedic Surgeons

Robot-assisted joint replacement is real — and it is a tool the surgeon drives, improving alignment precision in the OR. Surgical judgment, complication management, and operative accountability keep orthopedic surgery among the most automation-proof professions.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
28
Automation
10%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 29-2055

Surgical Technologists

Maintaining the sterile field, anticipating instrument needs, and counting sponges are physical, high-consequence OR tasks performed shoulder-to-shoulder with surgeons. Instrument tracking software assists; the sterile field does not run itself.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
22
Automation
9%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 31-2011

Occupational Therapy Assistants

OT assistants deliver the hands-on repetition of therapy: coaching daily-living skills, guiding exercises, encouraging progress. Documentation tools reduce paperwork; the coached, physical practice of recovery happens person to person.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 29-9021

Health Information Technologists and Medical Registrars

This is the systems side of health information: designing record databases, maintaining retrieval systems, and running registry data for research. AI coding tools change data entry, but system design, privacy compliance, and data quality accountability grow with demand.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 29-9091

Athletic Trainers

Sideline injury assessment, return-to-play clearance, taping, and rehabilitation guidance are physical, real-time clinical work performed on fields and in training rooms. Wearable data and video analysis inform decisions the trainer makes in person.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
9%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 29-9092

Genetic Counselors

AI variant interpretation accelerates the analysis side of genomics, but genetic counseling is communication work: explaining risk, supporting decisions about testing, and helping families process results. The counseling relationship is the profession.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
46
Automation
20%
Augment
64%
Low
SOC 25-3021

Self-Enrichment Teachers

Online platforms and AI-generated courses compete directly with generic enrichment content. Live classes — pottery, dance, cooking, language circles — sell presence, feedback, and community, which pre-recorded or generated content does not deliver.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
46
Automation
22%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 25-4011

Archivists

AI classification and OCR automate description and digitization workflows that used to consume archivist hours. Provenance judgment, appraisal of what to keep, authentication, and access policy keep the profession's judgment layer intact.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 25-4012

Curators

AI cataloging and image recognition accelerate collection documentation and research. Exhibition design, acquisition judgment, authentication, and the public storytelling of a museum keep curatorial work scholarly and human-led.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 25-9043

Teaching Assistants, Special Education

Supporting students with disabilities means one-on-one presence: behavior support, mobility assistance, daily-living instruction, and implementing IEP accommodations. No software provides the patient, physical, relational support these students need.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
22
Automation
7%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 25-1072

Nursing Instructors and Teachers, Postsecondary

Nursing schools turn away qualified applicants because they lack clinical instructors. Lecture content is augmentable, but supervising students at actual bedsides — correcting technique, evaluating clinical judgment — requires a practicing clinician's presence.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
18%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 25-1071

Health Specialties Teachers, Postsecondary

Teaching future clinicians blends current practice with instruction: lectures and grading augment easily with AI, while laboratory supervision, clinical precepting, and modeling professional judgment for students remain practitioner work.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
46
Automation
20%
Augment
64%
Low
SOC 25-1112

Law Teachers, Postsecondary

Law professors teach a profession AI is actively disrupting — which makes their subject matter more relevant, not less. Research drafting assists scholarship; Socratic classroom discussion, mentorship, and evaluation of legal reasoning stay human.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
54
Automation
24%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 11-9031

Education and Childcare Administrators, Preschool and Daycare

Running a childcare center means licensing compliance, staff management in a high-turnover field, parent trust, and daily operational fires. AI helps with enrollment paperwork and curriculum resources; the center's accountability sits with a person.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
18%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 11-9033

Education Administrators, Postsecondary

Enrollment analytics, scheduling optimization, and reporting are increasingly automated. Strategic planning, accreditation defense, faculty governance, and setting the institution's own AI-use policies keep administrators in judgment-heavy territory.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
24%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 21-1015

Rehabilitation Counselors

Helping people with disabilities into work means assessing barriers, arranging accommodations, coaching through placements, and advocating with employers. AI matching tools suggest options; the counseling relationship and barrier problem-solving stay human.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
13%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 21-1022

Healthcare Social Workers

Discharge planning, crisis intervention, and connecting patients to services happen at the intersection of medicine and messy human lives. Documentation tools reduce paperwork; the assessment of what a patient actually needs at home stays human.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
38
Automation
15%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 21-1094

Community Health Workers

This role exists because health systems fail to reach people — outreach workers succeed through cultural trust, home visits, and accompaniment to appointments. AI chatbots cannot replicate being a known, trusted presence in a neighborhood.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
14%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 21-2011

Clergy

AI can write a competent sermon — a novelty that misses the point. Clergy work is hospital visits, grief care, weddings and funerals, crisis response, and the sustained moral presence of a community leader. None of it is delegable to software.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
34
Automation
12%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 33-2021

Fire Inspectors and Investigators

AI plan review and sensor data flag potential code issues, but inspectors walk buildings, test systems, and exercise authority to require corrections. Arson investigation adds evidence analysis and courtroom testimony — both human-accountable.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
36
Automation
15%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 33-3031

Fish and Game Wardens

Patrolling lakes, forests, and backcountry to enforce wildlife law is fieldwork no drone completes: checking licenses, investigating poaching, and operating alone in remote areas. Camera traps and tracking data inform patrols the warden still conducts.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 33-9092

Lifeguards, Ski Patrol, and Recreational Protective Service Workers

Drowning-detection cameras now watch pools alongside lifeguards — an augmentation that addresses real vigilance limits. Rescue itself — entering water, extracting a person, delivering CPR — is physical response that happens in seconds and stays human.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
20
Automation
8%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 33-3041

Parking Enforcement Workers

License-plate readers and pay-by-plate systems automate violation detection and citation issuance, making this one of the more automatable protective roles. Physical patrol, confrontation management, and disputed-citation handling keep a reduced human presence.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
52
Automation
38%
Augment
30%
Moderate
SOC 23-1021

Administrative Law Judges, Adjudicators, and Hearing Officers

ALJs decide disability claims, benefits disputes, and regulatory enforcement hearings — high-volume adjudication where due process is legally mandatory. AI research and drafting tools accelerate opinion writing; the hearing and the decision remain human authority.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
40
Automation
16%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 43-4021

Correspondence Clerks

Reading incoming letters, determining their concerns, and composing replies from rules and templates is exactly the workflow generative AI now performs. This is a documented-decline clerical role whose remaining work routes and reviews automated drafts.

Displacement pressure 80
Exposure
88
Automation
74%
Augment
22%
Very High
SOC 43-4121

Library Assistants, Clerical

Checkouts, renewals, fines, and routine inquiries are handled by self-service kiosks and online accounts. Shelving, patron technology help, program support, and branch operations keep assistants present but with a changing task mix.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
72
Automation
54%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 43-5011

Cargo and Freight Agents

Rate quoting, booking, and shipment documentation are precisely what digital freight marketplaces and AI quoting tools automate. Complex shipments, customs issues, and carrier problem-solving keep experienced agents valuable in brokerage operations.

Displacement pressure 66
Exposure
76
Automation
58%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 43-5041

Meter Readers, Utilities

Advanced metering infrastructure reads consumption remotely and continuously, removing the reason this job exists. This is one of the clearest documented technology-displacement cases: remaining work is inspection, tampering checks, and meter maintenance.

Displacement pressure 76
Exposure
78
Automation
66%
Augment
20%
High
SOC 43-5053

Postal Service Mail Sorters, Processors, and Processing Machine Operators

Optical character readers and barcode sorters already process nearly all letter mail automatically — this occupation lives inside the machine. The remaining work is operating equipment, clearing jams, and hand-sorting odd-sized or unreadable items.

Displacement pressure 70
Exposure
74
Automation
62%
Augment
18%
High
SOC 43-9031

Desktop Publishers

Layout software democratized this role decades ago, and AI layout and template generation now produce publishable pages from raw content. Print production judgment, prepress accuracy, and brand-critical design remain, but employment keeps contracting.

Displacement pressure 74
Exposure
86
Automation
68%
Augment
38%
High
SOC 43-9111

Statistical Assistants

Compiling statistics, coding data for entry, and producing report charts are exactly what analytics tools and AI now do from raw data. Verification of source data and survey logistics remain, but the role is a clear automation-archetype.

Displacement pressure 76
Exposure
84
Automation
68%
Augment
30%
High
SOC 43-4111

Interviewers, Except Eligibility and Loan

Scripted survey and intake interviewing is a direct target for AI voice agents, which can administer questionnaires at unlimited scale. Probing inconsistent answers, maintaining response rates, and handling sensitive interviews keep some human interviewers.

Displacement pressure 70
Exposure
80
Automation
62%
Augment
30%
High
SOC 43-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Office and Administrative Support Workers

AI absorbs the clerical work these supervisors assign, which changes the job from supervising keystrokes to supervising exception queues, quality, and hybrid human-AI workflows. Scheduling and reporting automate; coaching and escalation judgment do not.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
60
Automation
36%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 11-2033

Fundraising Managers

AI donor research, appeal drafting, and campaign analytics compress the production side of fundraising. Major-gift relationships, event leadership, board coordination, and the credibility of the ask keep fundraising management human-led.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 11-3013

Facilities Managers

Smart-building sensors, predictive maintenance, and space-utilization analytics automate facilities information work. Vendor negotiation, renovation oversight, safety compliance, and accountability for physical buildings keep the role human-anchored.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 11-3061

Purchasing Managers

AI sourcing platforms automate supplier discovery, price comparison, and bid analysis. Category strategy, high-stakes negotiation, supplier risk management, and internal stakeholder alignment keep purchasing leadership human-led.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 11-3111

Compensation and Benefits Managers

Benchmarking platforms and AI pay analysis automate the data layer of compensation management. Pay philosophy, executive compensation design, compliance with fast-changing transparency laws, and negotiation with benefits vendors keep the role strategic.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 11-3131

Training and Development Managers

AI generates course drafts, quizzes, and learning paths in hours, collapsing course-production cost. Learning strategy, needs analysis with executives, program evaluation, and change management keep training leadership human-accountable.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
56
Automation
28%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 11-9151

Social and Community Service Managers

Grant reporting, outcome dashboards, and program documentation are increasingly AI-assisted. Community needs assessment, funder relationships, frontline staff leadership, and accountability for vulnerable populations keep the role human-led.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 13-1075

Labor Relations Specialists

Contract analysis, case-law research, and proposal drafting are strongly AI-augmentable. Negotiating at the bargaining table, investigating grievances, and reading what a union will actually accept remain deeply human negotiation work.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-1131

Fundraisers

AI writes appeal letters, segments donor lists, and scores prospects — the production layer of fundraising. Securing major gifts, building sponsor relationships, and representing a cause credibly remain relationship work.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
60
Automation
32%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-2071

Credit Counselors

AI budgeting apps analyze spending and generate repayment plans for free, compressing the advisory commodity layer. Hardship negotiation with creditors, housing-crisis counseling, and emotionally fraught debt situations keep human counselors relevant.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 13-2081

Tax Examiners and Collectors, and Revenue Agents

The government side of tax: reviewing returns, flagging discrepancies, and collecting delinquent accounts. Audit-selection algorithms and automated notices handle the volume; examiners keep the disputed, complex, and negotiated cases.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
72
Automation
48%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 23-2093

Title Examiners, Abstractors, and Searchers

Searching liens, mortgages, and deeds to establish clear title is document analysis that AI reads increasingly well. Judgment about encumbrances, resolving defects, and the liability behind title commitments keep certified examination human.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
78
Automation
56%
Augment
52%
High
SOC 13-1032

Insurance Appraisers, Auto Damage

Photo-estimating AI now generates repair estimates from smartphone images, directly targeting this occupation's core task. Complex structural damage, repair-shop negotiation, and total-loss judgment keep experienced appraisers in the workflow.

Displacement pressure 66
Exposure
80
Automation
60%
Augment
48%
High
SOC 15-1221

Computer and Information Research Scientists

AI assists the research workflow — literature review, experiment code, paper drafts — but this is the field creating the technology. Problem formulation, novel method design, and judging whether a result is real keep research scientists scarce and augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
56
Automation
26%
Augment
78%
Low
SOC 15-1231

Computer Network Support Specialists

AI diagnostics and automated remediation handle routine connectivity tickets, while cabling, hardware replacement, and multi-site outage triage keep physical and judgment layers. Unlike user helpdesk, this role owns the infrastructure itself.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
60
Automation
36%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 15-2021

Mathematicians

AI proof assistants and symbolic tools now contribute to serious mathematics, accelerating computation and conjecture testing. Defining worthwhile problems, judging proof validity, and building new theory keep mathematicians in augmentation territory.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
58
Automation
28%
Augment
74%
Moderate
SOC 17-2061

Computer Hardware Engineers

AI-driven chip design tools now explore layouts and optimize circuits, accelerating design cycles. Prototype testing, hardware-software interface judgment, and accountability for physical silicon keep hardware engineers firmly augmented.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
50
Automation
24%
Augment
68%
Low
SOC 17-2072

Electronics Engineers, Except Computer

Circuit simulation and AI-assisted design tools accelerate component design and documentation. Prototype debugging, standards compliance, and cross-discipline integration judgment keep electronics engineers augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
50
Automation
24%
Augment
66%
Low
SOC 17-2131

Materials Engineers

AI materials discovery predicts candidate compounds and properties, dramatically accelerating the search phase. Laboratory testing, failure analysis, fabrication method judgment, and production supervision keep materials engineers bench-anchored.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 17-2161

Nuclear Engineers

Reactor design analysis and safety documentation are increasingly AI-assisted. NRC licensing, safety-case accountability, emergency authority, and plant operations oversight make nuclear engineering one of the most structurally protected technical roles.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
46
Automation
20%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 17-2171

Petroleum Engineers

Reservoir simulation, production analytics, and well-placement optimization are heavily AI-assisted. Field operations oversight, completion design judgment, and high-consequence drilling decisions keep petroleum engineers accountable on site.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
50
Automation
26%
Augment
66%
Low
SOC 17-1012

Landscape Architects

Generative tools produce planting plans and site renderings quickly, pressuring the visualization layer. Site analysis, drainage and ecology judgment, regulatory approvals, and licensed stamp authority keep landscape architecture distinct.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 17-1022

Surveyors

Drones and photogrammetry capture site data in a fraction of the traditional time, transforming fieldwork economics. Legal boundary determination, certified survey liability, and expert testimony keep licensed surveyors necessary.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
24%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 17-3022

Civil Engineering Technologists and Technicians

Drafting, quantity calculation, and specification documentation are increasingly AI-assisted. Field inspection, materials testing, and site evaluation under an engineer's direction keep technicians grounded in physical verification.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
62
Automation
40%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 19-2012

Physicists

AI accelerates simulation, data analysis, and literature synthesis in physics research. Experiment design, instrumentation, and the judgment to recognize a real discovery — rather than a fit artifact — keep the field firmly augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
48
Automation
22%
Augment
74%
Low
SOC 19-1021

Biochemists and Biophysicists

Protein-structure prediction tools solved a fifty-year problem and changed this field's daily work. Experimental validation, drug development research, and the judgment to know when a predicted structure is wrong keep biochemists essential.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
74%
Low
SOC 19-1022

Microbiologists

AI image analysis accelerates organism identification and lab reading. Culture work, contamination investigation, and public-health testing are physical laboratory tasks where technique and judgment determine whether results are trustworthy.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
46
Automation
24%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 19-1023

Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

Camera-trap AI and acoustic classifiers process wildlife observations at scale, multiplying what one biologist can monitor. Field surveys, habitat assessment, and management recommendations for specific ecosystems keep the role field-anchored.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
40
Automation
20%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 19-1031

Conservation Scientists

GIS analysis and remote sensing automate much of the mapping and monitoring that once filled field days. Advising landowners, designing conservation practices, and mediating land-use disputes keep scientists in the field and at the table.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
44
Automation
22%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 19-1012

Food Scientists and Technologists

AI formulation tools suggest recipes and predict shelf life, accelerating product development cycles. Sensory testing, food safety verification, and regulatory compliance keep scientists in the lab and pilot plant.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
50
Automation
26%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 19-4021

Biological Technicians

Lab automation and AI data analysis cover more of the routine testing and recording that define this role. Sample collection, instrument setup, and experiment monitoring keep technicians needed, but routine bench volume is genuinely compressing.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
58
Automation
38%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 27-2031

Dancers

Dance is the human body as the product: audiences pay to watch trained bodies perform live. AI generates choreography concepts and video, but embodiment, stage presence, and live physical artistry cannot be synthesized for a theater audience.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
16
Automation
5%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 27-2032

Choreographers

AI can generate movement sequences and suggest formations, but choreography is made on real bodies in a studio: reading dancers' capabilities, coaching performance quality, and building work that lands with a live audience.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
42
Automation
20%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 27-2091

Disc Jockeys, Except Radio

Automated playlists and AI mixing software handle background music cheaply, compressing the commodity end of DJ work. Reading a live crowd, MC energy, and event pacing keep working DJs booked — the room responds to a person.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
52
Automation
34%
Augment
48%
Moderate
SOC 27-3011

Broadcast Announcers and Radio Disc Jockeys

AI voice cloning is now good enough that stations experiment with synthetic hosts — a direct, concrete displacement case for generic announcing. Local personality, live interviews, and community presence keep human hosts defensible.

Displacement pressure 58
Exposure
72
Automation
50%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 27-4012

Broadcast Technicians

Playout automation and IP-based transmission have consolidated master control work — one technician now monitors what once needed several. Emergency repair, signal troubleshooting, and live transmission accountability keep a smaller human crew.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
60
Automation
44%
Augment
48%
Moderate
SOC 27-4014

Sound Engineering Technicians

AI mixing, mastering, and noise-cleanup tools now produce competent audio from raw recordings, compressing routine studio work. Live sound mixing, acoustic problem-solving, and producer collaboration on creative mixes keep engineers valuable.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
58
Automation
36%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 27-4015

Lighting Technicians

Lighting control software automates cue execution and effects programming, but rigging, focusing, and adapting to venues are physical work done at height with real electricity. The console runs the show; humans build and focus it.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
36
Automation
22%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 27-1023

Floral Designers

AI can generate arrangement concepts and online ordering automates the sales layer, but floral design is handwork with perishable materials: cutting, conditioning, and arranging flowers for a specific event on a deadline.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
36
Automation
22%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 27-1027

Set and Exhibit Designers

Generative rendering produces set concepts and visualizations in minutes, compressing the drafting layer. Reading scripts for requirements, designing to physical budgets, and coordinating real construction keep designers accountable for what gets built.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
58
Automation
34%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 27-1012

Craft Artists

Pottery, glass, fiber, and wood craft is handwork producing physical objects — the opposite of generatable content. AI affects marketing and design ideation; the object's handmade origin is precisely what buyers pay for.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
44
Automation
24%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 35-2011

Cooks, Fast Food

Standardized fry-and-grill lines are exactly where kitchen robotics work: fixed menus, fixed times, fixed portions. Multiple chains run automated fry stations today, making this the most exposed cooking role — though pace, cleaning, and exceptions still need people.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
46
Automation
38%
Augment
16%
Moderate
SOC 35-3041

Food Servers, Nonrestaurant

Cafeteria lines, tray delivery, and counter service face self-service kiosks and tray-return automation. Institutional settings — hospitals, schools — keep human servers for special diets, patient needs, and service quality.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
38
Automation
26%
Augment
22%
Moderate
SOC 35-9021

Dishwashers

Machine dishwashing exists but handles the easy half: racks of uniform items. Pots, pans, prep equipment, and kitchen cleaning still run through human hands, and restaurants chronically cannot fill this role.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
26
Automation
20%
Augment
12%
Low
SOC 35-9031

Hosts and Hostesses, Restaurant, Lounge, and Coffee Shop

Reservation apps and waitlist software automate the booking ledger that hosts once managed. Greeting, table-read judgment during rushes, guest recovery, and managing the door's human flow keep the role present in full-service dining.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
56
Automation
40%
Augment
30%
Moderate
SOC 37-2021

Pest Control Workers

Inspecting crawl spaces, identifying infestations, and applying treatments is licensed fieldwork in unpredictable structures. Scheduling and monitoring sensors assist; the inspection judgment and chemical application stay human.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
24
Automation
12%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 37-3013

Tree Trimmers and Pruners

Climbing trees with chainsaws around power lines and houses is among the most physically hazardous and least automatable work there is. Drones assess canopies for estimates; the cutting happens in the tree, by a person.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
16
Automation
7%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 39-2011

Animal Trainers

Training an animal is a live feedback loop of timing, temperament reading, and trust-building between a human and a dog. AI offers generic training content; the behavior modification session itself is embodied interspecies work.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
20
Automation
7%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 39-2021

Animal Caretakers

Feeding, exercising, grooming, and watching animals for illness is daily physical care that owners and shelters pay humans to provide. Booking apps changed how pet care is sold; nothing changed who scoops, walks, and notices a sick dog.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 39-3011

Gambling Dealers

Electronic table games and AI surveillance handle game mechanics and integrity monitoring automatically. Live tables persist because players pay for the human game — the dealing ritual, table talk, and trusted handling of real money.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
52
Automation
40%
Augment
26%
Moderate
SOC 39-5092

Manicurists and Pedicurists

Shaping, polishing, and extending nails is detailed handwork on a client's hands — licensed, tactile, and social. Booking apps and design inspiration tools assist the business; the service itself is among the least automatable in the economy.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
14
Automation
4%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 39-5094

Skincare Specialists

AI skin-analysis apps recommend routines from selfies, but facials, peels, waxing, and pre/post-procedure skin care are hands-on licensed treatments. The analysis tool recommends; the esthetician treats.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
24
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 39-6012

Concierges

AI concierges answer routine questions and book standard reservations, absorbing the information layer. The concierge's value is the unusual request: hard-to-get reservations, local relationships, and judgment about what a specific guest will actually love.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
58
Automation
38%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 39-7011

Tour Guides and Escorts

Audio-guide apps and AI-generated commentary cover the information layer of tours. Group management, safety on the move, live storytelling with audience reading, and handling the unexpected keep human guides preferred for real groups.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
44
Automation
26%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 41-9012

Models

AI-generated models now appear in real advertising campaigns — the concrete displacement case for commercial image work. Fit modeling, runway, and on-set presence remain physical, while likeness rights become the contested frontier.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
62
Automation
44%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 11-9081

Lodging Managers

Revenue management systems, dynamic pricing, and guest messaging automate the information work of running a property. Staff leadership, guest recovery at scale, revenue accountability, and owner relations keep lodging management human-led.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
48
Automation
26%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 39-4021

Funeral Attendants

Attendants run the physical ceremony: placing caskets, escorting mourners, driving hearses, and assisting grieving families through services. Unlike licensed directors, this is support work — and its physical, ceremonial, and compassionate nature resists automation entirely.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
24
Automation
10%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 47-2051

Cement Masons and Concrete Finishers

Placing, leveling, and finishing concrete is weather-sensitive physical craft: reading the pour, timing the finish, and working the surface before it sets. Form-setting software and layout tools assist planning; the trowel work stays manual.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2081

Drywall and Ceiling Tile Installers

Measuring, cutting, hanging, and finishing drywall inside unique rooms and frames is physical craft work. Layout software and laser measurement speed planning; robots handle none of the hanging or finishing on real interiors.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 47-2141

Painters, Construction and Maintenance

Surface preparation, masking, and coating application in variable conditions are physical work robots perform only on flat factory lines. Color-matching software and estimating tools assist; prep judgment and finish quality stay manual.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
20
Automation
9%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2151

Pipelayers

Laying pipe means digging trenches, grading bases, and joining sections underground around existing utilities. Laser guidance and GPS assist grading accuracy; the trench work itself — variable soil, live utilities, confined spaces — stays manual.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2211

Sheet Metal Workers

Shop fabrication is increasingly automated with CNC plasma cutters and coil lines — BIM models now drive the cutting. Field installation, fitting ductwork into real buildings, and on-site modification keep the craft physical.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
28
Automation
15%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2221

Structural Iron and Steel Workers

Connecting steel at height — guiding beams, bolting connections, reading lift plans — is among the most physically demanding and hazardous work in construction. Robotics and exoskeleton pilots assist handling; nobody has automated the iron itself.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
16
Automation
7%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 47-4021

Elevator and Escalator Installers and Repairers

Installing and repairing vertical transportation is licensed, safety-critical electromechanical work inside shafts and machine rooms. Remote monitoring predicts failures and dispatches mechanics — the repair itself requires a licensed technician on site.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
22
Automation
9%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-4041

Hazardous Materials Removal Workers

Removing asbestos, lead, and contaminated materials is regulated physical work in protective gear inside containment zones. Monitoring devices and documentation software assist; nobody robots their way through an abatement.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
22
Automation
10%
Augment
32%
Low
SOC 47-4051

Highway Maintenance Workers

Patching pavement, clearing drainage, plowing snow, and setting work zones are physical tasks along live roadways. Route optimization and fleet telematics assist planning; the flagging, shoveling, and equipment work stay manual.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
22
Automation
12%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 49-9052

Telecommunications Line Installers and Repairers

Stringing fiber, climbing poles, and splicing cables in the field is physical network construction. AI network monitoring flags faults remotely; building and repairing the physical plant requires hands on the hardware.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
22
Automation
10%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-2091

Avionics Technicians

Installing, testing, and troubleshooting aircraft electronics is certified hands-on work, and it is expanding as aircraft become software-defined. Built-in test equipment and diagnostics assist; certified installation and sign-off stay human.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
32
Automation
14%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-3021

Automotive Body and Related Repairers

Frame straightening, panel replacement, and refinishing are physical craft work on vehicles that arrive damaged in infinite variety. AI photo estimating speeds the paperwork upstream; the metal and paint work itself has no software analogue.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
26
Automation
12%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 49-3052

Motorcycle Mechanics

Diagnosing and rebuilding motorcycle engines, transmissions, and suspensions is hands-on shop work. Manufacturer diagnostic software guides troubleshooting; the teardown, judgment, and rebuild remain manual craft.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
26
Automation
11%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 49-3042

Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanics, Except Engines

Repairing bulldozers, excavators, and cranes — often in the field — is heavy physical troubleshooting. Telematics and diagnostic software flag problems early; someone still crawls under the machine with tools.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
28
Automation
13%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-9094

Locksmiths and Safe Repairers

Smart locks and electronic access systems are changing what locksmiths install, not whether they are needed. Emergency lockouts, safe work, and access-system installation happen at the door, with tools, in person.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
26
Automation
11%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-2098

Security and Fire Alarm Systems Installers

This trade installs the AI cameras and smart sensors other occupations worry about. Running cable, mounting devices, programming panels, and commissioning systems on site is physical work that adoption directly grows.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-3021

Butchers and Meat Cutters

Processing-line automation handles standardized cuts, but retail and specialty butchery — custom cuts, customer requests, variable carcasses — remains knife work guided by judgment. The counter butcher's expertise is the product.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
22
Automation
12%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 51-9162

Computer Numerically Controlled Tool Programmers

CAM software with AI assistance now generates toolpaths from models, compressing routine programming hours. Prove-out judgment, tolerance strategy, and shop-floor problem solving keep programmers accountable for what the machine actually cuts.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
60
Automation
38%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 51-6052

Tailors, Dressmakers, and Custom Sewers

Fitting and altering garments on real bodies is handwork: pinning, adjusting drape, and sewing to an individual's measurements. AI pattern tools assist design; the fitting room and sewing machine stay human-operated.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
30
Automation
16%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-9071

Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers

Soldering settings, setting stones, and repairing heirlooms is precision handwork at the bench. CAD design tools and 3D printing assist custom design; the bench craft, appraisal trust, and repair judgment stay manual.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
15%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-9141

Semiconductor Processing Technicians

Fabs are already among the most automated production environments on earth — this occupation exists inside that automation, tending equipment, inspecting wafers, and keeping processes running. US fab expansion matters more to its outlook than any new automation.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
54
Automation
44%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 51-8031

Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant and System Operators

SCADA systems monitor and adjust treatment automatically, which is why plants run lean. Licensed operators remain accountable for public water safety: testing, chemical dosing judgment, emergency response, and regulatory compliance.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
42
Automation
28%
Augment
46%
Moderate
SOC 51-8021

Stationary Engineers and Boiler Operators

Operating boilers and building systems is increasingly sensor-monitored, but someone licensed must respond to alarms, isolate equipment for repair, and keep steam and heating systems safe. The accountability sits with a person on site.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
40
Automation
26%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-8011

Nuclear Power Reactor Operators

Reactor operators hold federal licenses to control nuclear plants — the most regulated operations role in the economy. Automated monitoring and procedures assist, but every control action, abnormal response, and shutdown decision requires a licensed human.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
44
Automation
26%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 53-7021

Crane and Tower Operators

Remote operation and anti-collision systems assist crane work, but lifts over live sites require certified operators judging loads, wind, and ground conditions in real time. Certification requirements and catastrophic-risk accountability keep humans in the seat.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
34
Automation
24%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 53-7081

Refuse and Recyclable Material Collectors

Automated side-loader trucks cut collection crews from two or three to one driver in many cities — a real, deployed labor reduction. Irregular pickups, missed-bin callbacks, and non-standard waste keep crews on routes.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
30
Automation
22%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 53-3051

Bus Drivers, School

Autonomous vehicle pilots target highways, not school routes: the driver also supervises children — boarding safety, behavior management, and getting kids across the road. Districts cannot fill these seats today, autonomy or not.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
34
Automation
20%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 53-3052

Bus Drivers, Transit and Intercity

Autonomous shuttles operate on fixed, slow, geofenced routes — the narrowest slice of transit. Urban bus driving mixes traffic judgment, passenger assistance, accessibility duties, and disruption handling that no pilot program covers.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
40
Automation
28%
Augment
32%
Moderate
SOC 53-4011

Locomotive Engineers

Positive Train Control automates speed enforcement, and railroads push for one-person crews — the concrete automation debate in rail. Engineers retain control authority over miles-long trains, grade judgment, and emergency response that regulators keep human.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
38
Automation
26%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 53-4031

Railroad Conductors and Yardmasters

Conductors coordinate train movement, signal engineers, and manage switching and documentation — the role railroads target in one-person-crew proposals. Union agreements, FRA safety rules, and yard complexity keep the position defended.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
36
Automation
24%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 45-2092

Farmworkers and Laborers, Crop, Nursery, and Greenhouse

Harvest robots and precision sprayers are real but cover specific crops in uniform conditions. Hand harvest of delicate produce, greenhouse work, and the sheer variety of farm tasks keep manual labor the backbone of agriculture.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
28
Automation
18%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 11-1011

Chief Executives

AI gives executives better analysis faster, which sharpens rather than threatens the role: strategy selection, capital allocation, leadership judgment, and ultimate accountability for organizational outcomes are precisely what cannot be delegated to a model.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
46
Automation
18%
Augment
70%
Low
SOC 11-9199

Compliance Managers

AI monitoring tools scan for violations and draft regulatory filings, changing how compliance teams work. The manager's value is judgment under ambiguity: interpreting new rules, designing controls, and answering to regulators — now including rules about AI itself.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
58
Automation
30%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 13-2099

Fraud Examiners, Investigators and Analysts

AI creates more fraud — synthetic identities, deepfake invoices, scaled scams — and AI detection tools fight back. Examiners sit on the defensive side: analyzing anomalies, interviewing suspects, building cases, and testifying. Detection demand grows with the threat.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 19-3051

Urban and Regional Planners

GIS analysis, zoning research, and report drafting are heavily AI-assistable. Public hearings, stakeholder mediation, political judgment, and land-use recommendations that must survive community scrutiny keep planners in human-led territory.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
56
Automation
28%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 25-1021

Computer Science Teachers, Postsecondary

CS faculty teach programming while AI writes code, and grade assignments while AI completes them — the sharpest version of the education paradox. Curriculum judgment, research supervision, and teaching students to evaluate AI output keep the role central.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
56
Automation
26%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 25-1121

Art, Drama, and Music Teachers, Postsecondary

Generative tools can produce student-quality art, scripts, and compositions, forcing studio faculty to redefine what they assess. Technique demonstration, live critique, performance direction, and mentorship of developing artists remain human teaching work.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
48
Automation
22%
Augment
66%
Low
SOC 29-1211

Anesthesiologists

Closed-loop sedation systems can titrate drugs automatically — a real technological frontier. But anesthesia is continuous crisis-readiness: airway emergencies, hemodynamic crashes, and split-second intervention keep a physician responsible for every patient.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
38
Automation
16%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 29-1218

Obstetricians and Gynecologists

Delivering babies and performing gynecologic surgery are high-acuity physical procedures with two patients at risk. Fetal monitoring AI and documentation tools assist; the delivery room and operating room keep a surgeon present and accountable.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
32
Automation
12%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 31-9096

Veterinary Assistants and Laboratory Animal Caretakers

Restraining animals, cleaning kennels, preparing surgical rooms, and assisting procedures is physical animal-handling work. Clinic software manages records; the animal in the exam room needs calm, skilled human hands.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
24
Automation
10%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 33-9099

Retail Loss Prevention Specialists

AI cameras now detect concealment and self-checkout fraud in real time — this role's surveillance layer is genuinely automated. What remains human is the intervention: approaching suspects, documenting evidence for prosecution, and safety judgment.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
52
Automation
34%
Augment
46%
Moderate
SOC 21-1093

Social and Human Service Assistants

Benefits navigation, housing assistance, and client support happen where bureaucracy meets people in crisis. Eligibility portals and chatbots answer simple questions; assistants handle the humans the system fails — forms they cannot read, situations with no checkbox.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 47-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Construction Trades and Extraction Workers

AI scheduling, photo documentation, and progress-tracking tools now automate much of a foreman's information work. Crew leadership, safety enforcement, subcontractor coordination, and split-second site judgment keep field supervision human.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 49-2011

Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers

AI has absorbed remote software troubleshooting, but physical hardware still fails in physical places: broken ATMs, failed drives, damaged devices. Component-level diagnosis, part replacement, and on-site service keep repairers in demand.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
38
Automation
20%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 49-9062

Medical Equipment Repairers

Hospitals keep buying sophisticated, software-driven medical devices — and every one needs installation, calibration, safety testing, and repair by a qualified technician. Device complexity and regulatory requirements make this a growth trade, not an automation target.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
32
Automation
14%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 53-4041

Subway and Streetcar Operators

Driverless metro lines operate in several countries, making this one of transit's most concrete automation cases. US adoption faces union agreements, safety regulators, and platform-door capital costs — operators remain standard on American systems.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
56
Automation
44%
Augment
30%
Moderate
SOC 53-7064

Packers and Packagers, Hand

Packing stations are warehouse automation's clearest target: dimensioning machines, auto-baggers, and robotic packers handle standard shipments. Fragile, oversized, and exception packing plus quality checks keep humans at the station.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
56
Automation
46%
Augment
22%
Moderate
SOC 11-3012

Administrative Services Managers

Records systems, supply management, and administrative workflows are being automated under this role's supervision. Budget control, vendor management, staffing decisions, and accountability for office operations keep the manager human-led.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
54
Automation
28%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 11-3051

Industrial Production Managers

Production analytics, quality monitoring, and scheduling software automate the plant manager's information layer. Output accountability, safety compliance, staffing decisions, and problem-solving when lines go down keep plant leadership human.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 11-9041

Architectural and Engineering Managers

AI-assisted design review and project analytics accelerate the information flow to engineering managers. Design approval authority, technical staffing judgment, client negotiation, and accountability for engineering quality keep the role augmentation-led.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
50
Automation
22%
Augment
70%
Low
SOC 11-9121

Clinical Research Coordinators

Electronic data capture, AI protocol review, and remote monitoring automate trial administration. Protocol compliance, patient safety oversight, site coordination, and regulatory documentation accountability keep coordinators central to drug development.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
58
Automation
32%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 11-9131

Postmasters and Mail Superintendents

Sorting automation and declining mail volume drive postal facility consolidation, which postmasters manage rather than face. Retail operations, carrier supervision, community service, and facility accountability keep the role present but shrinking.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
52
Automation
30%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 11-9171

Funeral Home Managers

Running a funeral home blends licensed service with small-business management: pricing, staffing, vendor relationships, and community reputation. Administrative software handles paperwork; the establishment's accountability and family relationships stay human.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 13-1011

Agents and Business Managers of Artists, Performers, and Athletes

AI-generated performers and synthetic influencers now compete for the same brand dollars agents sell against. Contract negotiation, career strategy, industry relationships, and protecting clients' likeness rights keep human representation valuable.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
54
Automation
28%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 13-1022

Wholesale and Retail Buyers, Except Farm Products

Demand forecasting and assortment algorithms now recommend what to stock, compressing the analysis layer of buying. Vendor negotiation, product quality judgment, trend intuition, and supplier development keep experienced buyers valuable.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
64
Automation
40%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 23-1012

Judicial Law Clerks

Legal research, memo drafting, and opinion proofreading — the clerk's core output — are exactly what AI legal tools now produce in minutes. Confidential judgment, knowing the judge's reasoning, and the apprenticeship's training function keep clerkships human.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
76
Automation
46%
Augment
72%
Moderate
SOC 17-2111

Fire-Prevention and Protection Engineers

Suppression system design, hazard analysis, and safety-code evaluation are increasingly simulation-assisted. Accident investigation, expert testimony, and accountability for life-safety design keep protection engineers professionally anchored.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
64%
Low
SOC 17-2121

Marine Engineers and Naval Architects

Hull design simulation and stability analysis are heavily computational, making this an augmentation-friendly specialty. Sea trials, regulatory classification, and accountability for vessel safety keep marine engineers in design and survey authority.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 17-3012

Electrical and Electronics Drafters

Producing wiring diagrams, circuit-board layouts, and connection specifications from engineer sketches is production drafting that design-automation tools now generate from models. Design coordination and revision judgment offer the remaining leverage.

Displacement pressure 68
Exposure
80
Automation
58%
Augment
50%
High
SOC 17-3013

Mechanical Drafters

Producing detailed mechanical drawings from sketches and specifications is precisely the task parametric CAD and generative detailing now automate. Design revision judgment, tolerance application, and engineer collaboration keep skilled drafters in the loop.

Displacement pressure 66
Exposure
78
Automation
56%
Augment
52%
High
SOC 17-3021

Aerospace Engineering and Operations Technologists and Technicians

Test setup, instrumentation, and data recording for aircraft development are increasingly automated and simulated. Physical test rigs, pre-flight checkouts, and on-program troubleshooting keep technicians embedded in hardware programs.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
28%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 17-3023

Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technologists and Technicians

Bench testing, prototype assembly, and circuit troubleshooting are hands-on electronics work that simulation cannot replace. Test-automation software runs the repetitive measurement sequences; technicians set them up and interpret failures.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
54
Automation
30%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 17-3025

Environmental Engineering Technologists and Technicians

Field sampling, pollution monitoring, and compliance documentation support environmental engineering projects. Remote sensors automate continuous monitoring, but sample collection, decontamination, and site inspection remain fieldwork.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
50
Automation
28%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 17-3027

Mechanical Engineering Technologists and Technicians

Mechanical engineering technicians build test rigs, run instrumented tests, and turn sketches into fabrication-ready drawings. Simulation software and AI-assisted CAD compress the drafting and calculation load, while rigging, instrumentation, and hands-on troubleshooting stay on the bench.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
58
Automation
34%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 17-1021

Cartographers and Photogrammetrists

Cartographers compile aerial imagery, survey notes, and satellite data into maps, and automated generalization now drafts much of that compilation. AI feature extraction from imagery is genuinely good, so the role is shifting toward database design, accuracy verification, and editorial judgment about what a map should say.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
68
Automation
44%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 17-3031

Surveying and Mapping Technicians

Surveying and mapping technicians hold the rods, run the total stations, and turn field measurements into map layers. GNSS receivers, drones, and automated plotters compress both collection and drafting, leaving instrument setup, error checking, and boundary research as the durable core.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
56
Automation
34%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 19-1013

Soil and Plant Scientists

Soil and plant scientists run field experiments on crop varieties, soil health, and land management. Sensor networks and satellite imagery now stream the data they once collected by hand, and AI phenotyping scores plots faster than any field crew, but experiment design and agronomic judgment still set the questions.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
46
Automation
22%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 19-2011

Astronomers

Astronomy is already a machine-learning field: survey telescopes generate more data than humans can inspect, and ML pipelines classify objects, flag anomalies, and clean images as standard practice. The astronomer's work is choosing the questions, building the instruments and software, and deciding what a detection means.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
20%
Augment
66%
Low
SOC 19-2032

Materials Scientists

Materials scientists study metals, polymers, and ceramics to develop products with specific properties. Materials-discovery AI now screens thousands of candidate compounds before a lab test runs, shifting the human work toward experiment planning, failure analysis, and validating what the models propose.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 19-2042

Geoscientists

Geoscientists interpret well logs, seismic surveys, and field samples to locate resources and assess hazards. Machine learning now pre-interprets seismic sections and classifies formations, but ground-truthing a model against an actual outcrop, and staking a drilling decision on it, stays with the geologist.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 19-2043

Hydrologists

Hydrologists measure streamflows, model watersheds, and forecast floods and water supply. Gauge telemetry and ML-enhanced flood models automate the measurement and first-pass prediction, while investigators who design studies, calibrate instruments, and defend forecasts to water managers remain essential.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 19-3041

Sociologists

Sociologists design studies of groups, institutions, and social behavior. Text analysis and survey-modeling tools now process qualitative data at scale, but gaining access to communities, designing instruments people will actually answer, and interpreting behavior in context remain fieldwork judgment.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 19-3091

Anthropologists and Archeologists

Anthropologists and archeologists excavate sites, study cultures, and interpret material remains. LiDAR survey and AI artifact classification speed up detection and cataloging, but excavation is destructive, unrepeatable fieldwork, and ethnographic research depends on trust that no instrument collects.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 19-3092

Geographers

Geographers study the distribution of physical and cultural phenomena across space. Automated data compilation and AI-assisted cartography handle routine mapping, shifting the work toward spatial analysis design, consulting on location and hazard questions, and maintaining the geographic data systems organizations now depend on.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
54
Automation
28%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 19-3093

Historians

Historians gather evidence from archives, diaries, and records, then judge its authenticity and significance. Handwritten-text recognition and AI summarization now transcribe and digest documents at scale, which expands the searchable archive while putting a premium on source criticism, the discipline's core skill.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 19-3094

Political Scientists

Political scientists test theories against election data, surveys, legislation, and case law. Natural-language tools now code political text and draft literature reviews quickly, but research design, forecast accountability, and advising decision-makers on what a trend means remain judgment work.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
54
Automation
28%
Augment
64%
Moderate
SOC 19-4031

Chemical Technicians

Chemical technicians set up experiments, run chromatography and spectroscopy tests, and monitor product quality. Automated analyzers and lab information systems handle the repetitive runs, while sample prep, instrument maintenance, and catching results that look wrong keep technicians on the bench.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
58
Automation
36%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 19-4042

Environmental Science Technicians

Environmental science and protection technicians collect air, soil, and water samples, run pollutant tests, and document hazardous conditions. Continuous monitoring stations automate routine readings, but regulated chain-of-custody sampling, spill investigation, and field inspection stay physical and accountability-bound.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
54
Automation
30%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 19-4051

Nuclear Technicians

Nuclear technicians monitor reactor equipment, run surveillance tests, and control radiation exposure under tightly regulated procedures. Plants add digital monitoring and predictive maintenance, but the industry's regulatory culture automates slowly, and every abnormal-event response is staffed by qualified humans.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
40
Automation
20%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 19-4071

Forest and Conservation Technicians

Forest and conservation technicians thin stands, patrol forests, map tract data, and lead seasonal crews. Drones and digital mapping improve surveying and fire detection, but the work itself happens in terrain: cutting, planting, patrolling, and enforcing regulations where the trees are.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
14%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 19-4061

Social Science Research Assistants

Social science research assistants clean datasets, run statistical analyses, and prepare the tables and reports behind academic research. This is squarely in the current AI competence zone: code generation, data cleaning, and first-draft summaries compress exactly the tasks that define the role.

Displacement pressure 50
Exposure
66
Automation
42%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 19-5012

Occupational Health and Safety Technicians

Occupational health and safety technicians test workplaces for hazards, maintain protective equipment, and keep environmental records: the measurement arm of safety programs, distinct from the specialists who design them. Sensor-based monitoring automates readings, while inspections, equipment verification, and worker training stay on-site.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
50
Automation
26%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 25-1011

Business Teachers, Postsecondary

Business faculty teach finance, marketing, and operations while employers demand graduates who can manage AI tools, forcing the fastest curriculum redesign in the university. Case-method discussion, practitioner networks, and research credibility keep faculty central; lecture-drafting and grading compress first.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Moderate
SOC 25-1022

Mathematical Science Teachers, Postsecondary

Mathematics faculty teach linear algebra and differential equations while AI solves the problem sets instantly. That forces assessment redesign, from oral exams to in-class derivation and AI-critical assignments, while the conceptual teaching and research supervision that define the role stay human.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Moderate
SOC 25-1032

Engineering Teachers, Postsecondary

Engineering faculty lecture, run laboratories, supervise design projects, and write grants. AI handles problem-set solutions and drafts documentation, but accredited programs require hands-on lab instruction and supervised capstone work: physical verification of what students actually built.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Low
SOC 25-1054

Physics Teachers, Postsecondary

Physics faculty teach quantum mechanics and optics while AI solves textbook problems and drafts lab reports. Laboratory supervision exposes what students actually understand, and research at the frontier, where training data runs out, keeps the discipline's human core intact.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Low
SOC 25-1066

Psychology Teachers, Postsecondary

Psychology faculty teach abnormal psychology and cognitive processes while running research programs on human behavior, including how humans interact with AI. Statistical tooling automates analysis, but study design, research ethics, and methods training are the discipline's defensible core.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Moderate
SOC 25-1063

Economics Teachers, Postsecondary

Economics faculty teach econometrics and price theory while ML forecasting tools commoditize routine prediction. That shifts teaching toward causal identification, model critique, and data judgment: the parts of economics where automated forecasts fail most visibly.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Moderate
SOC 25-1125

History Teachers, Postsecondary

History faculty teach students to interrogate sources while AI summarizes those sources instantly and confidently. That makes the discipline's core skill, detecting bias, provenance, and omission, more valuable to teach, even as lecture content itself becomes cheap to generate.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Moderate
SOC 25-1122

Communications Teachers, Postsecondary

Communications faculty teach public speaking, media criticism, and journalism-adjacent skills while the media industry their students enter is being rebuilt around AI content. That overlap makes the curriculum urgent: students need verification, audience judgment, and performance skills that generated content cannot supply.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Moderate
SOC 25-1111

Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement Teachers, Postsecondary

Criminal justice faculty teach criminal law, policing, and investigation techniques to students headed for agencies and courts. AI drafting tools compress lecture prep and grading, but the field's practitioner pipeline, from scenario training to legal procedure to agency partnerships, keeps instruction grounded in practice.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
69%
Low
SOC 25-4013

Museum Technicians and Conservators

Museum technicians and conservators install, repair, and preserve artifacts: cleaning textiles, fabricating missing parts, and preparing objects for exhibition and shipping. Digitization and AI cataloging transform collection records, but conservation is irreversible handwork on irreplaceable objects.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 29-1217

Neurologists

Neurologists diagnose stroke, dementia, epilepsy, and movement disorders through examination findings, histories, and test interpretation. AI assists with EEG reading and imaging triage, but the neurological exam, pattern recognition across strength, reflexes, sensation, and cognition, is a bedside skill, and treatment plans carry real risk.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
34
Automation
13%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 29-1222

Pathologists

Pathologists diagnose disease from microscopic slides and laboratory data, the specialty where digital pathology plus AI slide reading is most advanced, echoing radiology. AI screens slides and quantifies features, while pathologists integrate ambiguous morphology with clinical context and sign the report that directs surgery and oncology.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 29-1241

Ophthalmologists

Ophthalmologists combine clinic diagnosis with surgery: cataract, glaucoma, and retinal procedures. AI screening of retinal photos and OCT scans is genuinely strong and already deployed in diabetic retinopathy detection, which extends screening reach; the surgical and interventional half of the specialty remains entirely hands-on.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
36
Automation
14%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 29-1124

Radiation Therapists

Radiation therapists position patients and deliver prescribed radiation doses daily over multi-week courses, different work from radiologic and MRI technologists, who image rather than treat. Auto-contouring and automated planning compress the upstream physics work, while daily positioning, patient reassurance, and reaction monitoring stay at the machine.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
46
Automation
22%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 29-2031

Cardiovascular Technologists

Cardiovascular technologists run EKGs, echocardiograms, and stress tests while monitoring patients for warning signs. AI now auto-measures ejection fractions and flags arrhythmias, but electrode placement, patient positioning, and recognizing when a patient is deteriorating mid-test stay at the bedside.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 29-2033

Nuclear Medicine Technologists

Nuclear medicine technologists administer radiopharmaceuticals, operate gamma cameras and PET scanners, and calculate radiation dosages. AI reconstruction now produces diagnostic images from lower doses and shorter scans, while radiopharmaceutical handling, dose calculation, and patient safety remain regulated hands-on work.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
42
Automation
20%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 29-2081

Opticians

Opticians measure faces, interpret prescriptions, and fit and adjust eyewear. Online retailers with virtual try-on and mail-order lenses have taken the commodity segment, while complex prescriptions, progressive-lens fitting, and adjustment work still reward a skilled pair of hands.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
52
Automation
28%
Augment
54%
Moderate
SOC 29-2091

Orthotists and Prosthetists

Orthotists and prosthetists design, fabricate, and fit braces and artificial limbs. 3D scanning and additive manufacturing have transformed fabrication — sockets can be printed from scans — but fit is a living problem: residual limbs change, gaits differ, and comfort is judged on the patient, not on screen.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
38
Automation
16%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 29-9093

Surgical Assistants

Surgical assistants maintain the operative field, position patients, and close incisions under the surgeon's direction. Robotic platforms change who holds the instruments but add demand for staff who dock, position, and troubleshoot them — the assistant role adapts to the robot rather than disappearing under it.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
10%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 29-2053

Psychiatric Technicians

Psychiatric technicians provide daily care, lead therapeutic activities, and monitor patients in behavioral health facilities — the hands-on counterpart to counselors and therapists. Wearable monitoring and documentation software assist observation, but de-escalation, restraint when required, and round-the-clock presence are irreducibly human.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 29-1081

Podiatrists

Podiatrists diagnose and surgically treat foot and ankle disorders, from bunions to diabetic ulcers. AI wound-imaging and gait-analysis tools sharpen assessment, but debridement, surgery, and the systemic-disease judgment that foot symptoms often trigger keep the specialty physician-led.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 11-1031

Legislators

Legislators debate, negotiate, and vote on law. AI now drafts bill summaries, briefing memos, and constituent correspondence — compressing the staff work around the office — while the office itself is filled by election, and its core acts, hearing testimony and casting votes, are accountability functions by design.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 33-1012

Police Supervisors

Police supervisors coordinate investigations, set schedules, review reports, and handle misconduct complaints. Scheduling and analytics software now drafts rosters and flags crime patterns, but supervisors carry legal responsibility for how their officers' work is conducted — a liability no dashboard absorbs.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 33-1021

Fire Supervisors

Fire supervisors lead engine and rescue crews, size up scenes, assign positions, and drill personnel. Dispatch analytics and pre-incident planning software improve information flow, but scene command under time pressure — reading a building, committing crews, calling a Mayday — is human judgment with lives attached.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 33-3011

Bailiffs

Bailiffs screen courthouse entrants, maintain custody of prisoners during proceedings, and keep order in the courtroom. AI-assisted weapons detection speeds entry screening, but custody of a defendant feet from a jury, and the authority to act inside a courtroom, remain sworn human functions.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 33-3052

Transit and Railroad Police

Transit and railroad police patrol stations and yards, investigate freight theft, and protect passengers across a jurisdiction that moves. Camera analytics now flag trespassers and unattended bags across thousands of feeds, directing officers to incidents faster — but the response, arrest, and investigation remain on the ground.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
32
Automation
14%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 33-9011

Animal Control Workers

Animal control workers capture stray and dangerous animals, investigate cruelty reports, and educate the public on welfare laws. Dispatch apps and license databases streamline the paperwork, but the work is physical capture, field investigation, and judgment about animal and human safety in unpredictable conditions.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 33-9031

Gambling Surveillance Officers

Gambling surveillance officers watch casino floors through camera systems to catch cheating and theft. AI video analytics now do the first pass — tracking cards, reading bets, flagging anomalies — turning the officer's job from watching screens into adjudicating what the system flags.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
56
Automation
32%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 21-1023

Mental Health and Substance Abuse Social Workers

Mental health and substance abuse social workers counsel clients, coordinate treatment, and manage crises. Ambient documentation tools now draft case notes from sessions, reclaiming hours of paperwork — while the therapeutic relationship, risk assessment, and crisis intervention that define the role stay human.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
14%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 27-2023

Umpires, Referees, and Sports Officials

Umpires and referees enforce rules and manage games in real time. Automated ball-strike systems and video review now adjudicate specific calls with machine precision — an honest, visible case of partial automation — while game management, player control, and the thousand judgment calls between the measured ones stay human.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
48
Automation
26%
Augment
40%
Moderate
SOC 27-1026

Merchandise Displayers and Window Trimmers

Merchandise displayers design and install window and in-store displays. Planogram software and AI-generated layout concepts now draft the design phase, but the installation — building, rigging, lighting, and maintaining physical displays in real retail spaces — is hands-on craft work.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
42
Automation
20%
Augment
50%
Moderate
SOC 39-5091

Makeup Artists, Theatrical and Performance

Theatrical makeup artists create and maintain performers' appearances across takes, scenes, and lighting changes. Digital de-aging and AI touch-up tools now handle some screen corrections in post, but live continuity — replicating a character's look exactly, day after day, under hot lights — is precision handwork on set.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 39-3092

Costume Attendants

Costume attendants dress cast members, choreograph quick changes, and keep costumes performance-ready. Inventory software tracks garments digitally, but the thirty-second quick change, the emergency repair minutes before curtain, and the nightly care of fragile garments are backstage physical work.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 35-2012

Cooks, Institution and Cafeteria

Institution and cafeteria cooks produce large-batch meals for schools, hospitals, and care facilities. Automated kettles and production-planning software smooth the volume work, but dietary restrictions, allergen control, and texture-modified diets for medical patients require cooks who understand what is at stake in every tray.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
40
Automation
20%
Augment
40%
Moderate
SOC 35-2015

Cooks, Short Order

Short-order cooks grill, fry, and plate food to order in diners and counters. Robotic fryers and automated grills now handle the most repetitive stations in chain kitchens, but the diner reality — simultaneous tickets, custom requests, and equipment that breaks mid-rush — still rewards a fast human cook.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
44
Automation
23%
Augment
38%
Moderate
SOC 35-1012

Food Service Supervisors

Food service supervisors assign stations, train crews, resolve complaints, and jump on the line during rushes — working supervisors rather than office managers. Scheduling and inventory software now drafts rosters and order quantities, but the floor presence, training, and service recovery happen in real time.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 37-3012

Pesticide Handlers and Applicators

Pesticide handlers mix chemicals and apply them to lawns, trees, and crops. Drone and targeted-spray systems now treat fields with less chemical and fewer exposure hours, but mixing, calibration, weather judgment, and the licensed accountability for what goes where remain with the applicator.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
34
Automation
16%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 39-4011

Embalmers

Embalmers prepare the deceased through arterial embalming, restorative art, and cosmetic work. Software handles case tracking and family paperwork, but the preparation room is licensed, physical, irreversible craft — distinct from the arrangement and ceremony work of funeral directors and attendants.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
18
Automation
6%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 39-9032

Recreation Workers

Recreation workers organize and lead activities at parks, camps, and community centers. Registration platforms and program-planning tools handle enrollment and logistics, but leading fifty children through a camp day, adapting activities to the group in front of you, and responding to injuries are in-person work.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 39-9041

Residential Advisors

Residential advisors supervise dormitories and group residences: mediating roommate conflicts, making safety rounds, responding to crises at 3 a.m. Incident-reporting software and smart-lock systems streamline the logging, but the mediation, the welfare check, and the judgment call about when to escalate are human presence work.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
28
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 41-2021

Counter and Rental Clerks

Counter and rental clerks take orders, compute charges, and hand over rental equipment. Kiosks and mobile apps now handle routine transactions end to end — car rental is the visible case — leaving clerks the exceptions: damaged items, confused customers, and equipment that needs explaining or inspection.

Displacement pressure 54
Exposure
62
Automation
38%
Augment
44%
High
SOC 41-4011

Technical and Scientific Sales Representatives

Technical and scientific sales representatives sell equipment and instruments whose purchase requires genuine consultation. AI now drafts proposals, researches accounts, and preps call briefs, compressing the desk work — while needs analysis, solution design, and the multi-stakeholder trust that closes complex deals stay human.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
52
Automation
26%
Augment
66%
Moderate
SOC 43-3041

Gambling Cage Workers

Gambling cage workers convert chips and tickets to currency, process advances, and reconcile the cage. Self-service redemption kiosks and cashless gaming now handle routine conversions — the visible front of this role — while reconciliation, large transactions, and regulatory reporting keep a licensed worker accountable.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
60
Automation
37%
Augment
42%
High
SOC 43-2021

Telephone Operators

Telephone operators connect calls, provide directory information, and assist with special situations. This is one of the most thoroughly automated occupations in history: switchboards digitized decades ago, and voice AI now handles most remaining directory and routing calls. The honest reading is high, continuing pressure.

Displacement pressure 68
Exposure
76
Automation
52%
Augment
36%
High
SOC 43-9051

Mail Clerks and Mail Machine Operators

Mail clerks sort, meter, and route incoming and outgoing mail for organizations. Sorting machinery automated the volume decades ago, and digital communication keeps shrinking the mail itself — a documented decline that predates AI. What remains is exception handling, packages, and regulated physical correspondence.

Displacement pressure 60
Exposure
64
Automation
42%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 43-9071

Office Machine Operators

Office machine operators run high-speed copiers, scanners, and bindery equipment for document production. Digital workflows eliminated most of the demand: documents are born digital now, and what remains concentrates in print shops and scanning bureaus converting legacy paper — a shrinking niche.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
66
Automation
44%
Augment
36%
High
SOC 43-5111

Weighers, Measurers, Checkers, and Samplers

Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers record the quantity, quality, and condition of materials moving through production and shipping. In-line scales, machine vision, and sensor telemetry now capture exactly these readings automatically — this is one of the clearest cases of instrumentation replacing a recording job.

Displacement pressure 60
Exposure
64
Automation
43%
Augment
44%
High
SOC 47-2011

Boilermakers

Boilermakers assemble, weld, and repair boilers and pressure vessels, much of it during power-plant and refinery outages. Drone inspections and ultrasonic testing robots now survey vessels for defects, but confined-space rigging, pressure welding, and fitting steel in place stay with the boilermaker.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
32
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 47-2021

Brickmasons and Blockmasons

Brickmasons lay brick, block, and stone with mortar, course by course. Robotic bricklaying prototypes have existed for years and remain confined to simple, repetitive walls; corners, arches, restoration matching, and working around existing structures are craft judgment that machines have not cracked.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2041

Carpet Installers

Carpet installers measure, cut, seam, and stretch carpet in homes and commercial spaces. Measurement apps and layout software calculate material needs, but every room is different: seams must disappear, patterns must align, and carpet must be stretched tight by a person kneeling on it.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-2044

Tile and Stone Setters

Tile and stone setters cut, lay, and grout tile in bathrooms, kitchens, and lobbies. Layout software plans patterns and cuts, but substrate judgment, waterproofing, and fitting tile around the irregular reality of actual rooms keep this a handcraft trade.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2121

Glaziers

Glaziers cut, fit, and install glass in windows, skylights, and curtain walls, often on scaffolding many stories up. CNC cutting prepares glass in the shop, but setting a six-hundred-pound panel with a crane and suction cups in the wind is field judgment with serious safety stakes.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-2131

Insulation Workers

Insulation workers fit, wrap, and blow insulation into floors, ceilings, and mechanical systems. Thermal-imaging audits identify where insulation fails, which directs the work rather than doing it — someone still crawls the attic, wraps the duct, and packs the blower hopper.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 47-2171

Reinforcing Iron and Rebar Workers

Rebar workers position and tie the steel that reinforces concrete structures. BIM models and prefabricated rebar cages now arrive engineered and partially assembled, but placing, spacing, and tying steel in forms — often on elevated decks — is physical, plan-reading fieldwork.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-4031

Fence Erectors

Fence erectors lay out lines, dig postholes, set posts, and stretch fence across residential, commercial, and agricultural sites. Utility-locate technology and layout apps reduce the research time, but the work is augers, concrete, and tensioned wire in every soil condition.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 47-4071

Septic Tank Servicers and Sewer Pipe Cleaners

Septic servicers and sewer cleaners operate jetters, vacuum trucks, and rodders to clear lines and service tanks. Camera inspection systems now show exactly where a blockage sits, which makes the work more targeted — but someone still runs the hose down the line and pumps the tank.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-5032

Explosives Workers and Blasters

Explosives workers place and detonate charges for construction, demolition, and mining. Electronic detonation systems and blast-design software now model shots before a hole is drilled, but every step — examining the blast area, loading charges, clearing the site, keeping federal explosives records — is licensed, inspected human work.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-2021

Radio, Cellular, and Tower Equipment Installers

Radio, cellular, and tower equipment installers climb towers to mount antennas, run cables, and test transmission components. Network-design software and drone inspections plan the work, but bolting an antenna to steel three hundred feet up is physical work with serious fall-protection stakes.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-2094

Industrial Electronics Repairers

Industrial electronics repairers test, diagnose, and repair the electronic controls that run factories. Ironically, the more plants automate, the more this role grows: every robot, PLC, and sensor network needs someone who can trace a fault to the board level and get the line running again.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
34
Automation
14%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-3022

Automotive Glass Installers

Automotive glass installers remove and replace windshields and windows, bonding glass with urethane that must cure correctly to keep the roof structure sound. The trade's complication is ADAS: cameras mounted to windshields require recalibration after replacement, adding a diagnostic layer to a physical job.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-3041

Farm Equipment Mechanics

Farm equipment mechanics maintain and repair tractors, harvesters, and irrigation systems — increasingly computer-controlled machines. Dealer diagnostic software pinpoints faults electronically, but a combine that dies mid-harvest needs a mechanic in the field, and harvest windows wait for no one.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-3051

Motorboat Mechanics

Motorboat mechanics maintain and repair outboard and inboard engines, then test them under way on the water. Engine diagnostic software reads fault codes, but marine environments corrode everything differently, and verifying a repair means running the boat — a test no bench simulator fully replicates.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-3053

Small Engine Mechanics

Small engine mechanics repair the gasoline engines in mowers, saws, and generators. The real displacement force is battery power, not AI: electric equipment eliminates carburetors and ignition systems wholesale, shifting the repair skill set toward motors, controllers, and battery packs.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-3093

Tire Repairers and Changers

Tire repairers and changers mount, balance, and repair tires at volume. Balancing machines and TPMS diagnostics automate the measurement, but every wheel still gets unbolted, mounted, torqued, and road-tested by a person — often on the roadside for commercial fleets.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-9044

Millwrights

Millwrights install, align, and level industrial machinery — setting clearances and alignments that determine whether a production line runs true. Laser-alignment tools have transformed the measurement, but rigging multi-ton machines into place and dialing them to specification is judgment-intensive physical work.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9092

Commercial Divers

Commercial divers inspect, repair, and build underwater: bridge pilings, ship hulls, dams, and offshore infrastructure. Remotely operated vehicles now handle many inspection surveys, but construction, welding, and salvage underwater require a diver — working in zero visibility, by touch, under decompression limits.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-9031

Home Appliance Repairers

Home appliance repairers diagnose and fix washers, refrigerators, and ovens in customers' homes. Smart appliances now report their own fault codes before the technician arrives, but sealed-system refrigeration work, gas connections, and the crawl behind the machine stay human.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-5111

Prepress Technicians

Prepress technicians prepare files for printing: preflight checks, proofing, page assembly, and plate output. Desktop publishing and automated preflight software absorbed most of this work years ago — a documented displacement that predates AI — and web-to-print automation continues to shrink what remains.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
62
Automation
41%
Augment
48%
High
SOC 51-5112

Printing Press Operators

Printing press operators set up, run, and adjust presses, monitoring registration, ink density, and automated fault systems. The displacement story here is documented history: print volume has declined for two decades as media went digital, and modern presses automate the adjustments operators once made by hand.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
58
Automation
34%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 51-6011

Laundry and Dry-Cleaning Workers

Laundry and dry-cleaning workers sort, wash, dry, and fold articles in commercial and industrial laundries. Tunnel washers and automated folding systems now move most of the volume in large plants, with workers feeding machines, catching misfolds, and handling the delicate items automation cannot.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
50
Automation
28%
Augment
34%
Moderate
SOC 51-7011

Cabinetmakers and Bench Carpenters

Cabinetmakers build custom cabinets and high-grade furniture, from blueprint to finished joint. CNC routers now cut components with perfect repeatability in production shops, but custom fitting to real rooms, veneer and finish work, and one-off commissions remain bench craftsmanship.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 53-2012

Commercial Pilots

Commercial pilots fly charter, cargo, agricultural, and survey missions outside the airline system. The single-pilot-operations debate applies here as at the airlines, but these missions add variables automation handles worst: unimproved strips, low-level agricultural passes, and on-demand routing into unfamiliar airports.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 53-3011

Ambulance Drivers and Attendants

Ambulance drivers and attendants drive emergency vehicles, load patients on stretchers, and assist EMTs on calls. Routing software optimizes the drive, but the role's anchor is patient handling: lifting, loading, and caring for people in transit — work that no vehicle automation touches.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
34
Automation
15%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 53-3053

Shuttle Drivers and Chauffeurs

Shuttle drivers and chauffeurs run fixed and on-demand routes for airports, hotels, and campuses. Autonomous shuttle pilots operate today on exactly these routes — low-speed, geofenced, predictable — making this one of the driving roles where automation is deployed fact rather than forecast.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
48
Automation
25%
Augment
40%
Moderate
SOC 53-5011

Sailors and Marine Oilers

Sailors and marine oilers stand watch, handle mooring lines, maintain machinery, and keep engineering logs aboard commercial vessels. Autonomous vessel trials make headlines, but international crewing rules, port operations, and the physical reality of lines, barges, and machinery keep deck crews aboard.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
28
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 53-5021

Ship Captains and Mates

Ship captains and mates direct courses, dock vessels, and command crews through locks, narrows, and congested harbors. Voyage-optimization software and electronic chart systems sharpen navigation, but the docking maneuver — wind, current, tug coordination, and a hundred thousand tons of momentum — is master-level judgment.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 53-6051

Transportation Inspectors

Transportation inspectors examine freight, vehicles, and handling procedures for safety compliance. Telematics and EDR data now document what happens between inspections, augmenting the record — but the inspection itself, physically verifying load securement and finding the violation a sensor missed, stays on site.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 53-6021

Parking Attendants

Parking attendants park and retrieve vehicles, collect fees, and manage lots. Ticketless payment and automated garages now handle the transaction and, increasingly, the parking itself — robotic garages stack cars without drivers. The honest reading is high pressure on the traditional lot model.

Displacement pressure 56
Exposure
54
Automation
31%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 53-1043

Material Moving Supervisors

Material moving supervisors assign work, enforce safety rules, and coordinate the loading crews and equipment that keep freight flowing. Warehouse management systems now optimize assignments algorithmically, but someone still walks the floor, resolves the conflict, owns the safety record, and answers for the shift.

Displacement pressure 28
Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 11-9013

Farmers and Ranchers

Farmers and ranchers run land, livestock, and finances as one business. Autosteer tractors, drone scouting, and sensor-monitored herds now generate and act on data continuously — but deciding what to plant, when to sell, and how to survive a drought year is judgment that no platform owns.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 11-9071

Gambling Managers

Gambling managers run pit operations: staffing tables, resolving payout disputes, and removing advantage players. Surveillance analytics and cashless systems now track every bet, giving managers better information — while staffing judgment, regulatory relationships, and floor disputes stay with a licensed manager.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
19%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 11-9072

Entertainment and Recreation Managers

Entertainment and recreation managers plan programs, hire staff, and run budgets for venues, camps, and attractions. Booking platforms and scheduling software automate the logistics, while live-event judgment — reading a crowd, handling the day-of crisis, building a program people return for — stays with the manager.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 17-2021

Agricultural Engineers

Agricultural engineers design the machinery, irrigation, and sensor systems that precision agriculture runs on. Modeling software and simulation accelerate design work, but field conditions — soil, weather, animal behavior — require engineers who test equipment where it will actually be used.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
19%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 17-2151

Mining and Geological Engineers

Mining and geological engineers design extraction plans, select methods, and inspect mines for safety. Autonomous haul trucks and drilling systems now run production at large sites, but mine design, ground-control judgment, and the safety inspection of working areas remain licensed engineering work.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
19%
Augment
60%
Low
SOC 17-3028

Calibration Technologists and Technicians

Calibration technologists test and adjust measurement devices against known standards. Automated calibration benches run the repetitive comparisons, but traceability documentation, field calibration of installed instruments, and judgment about anomalous drift keep technicians in the loop.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
44
Automation
22%
Augment
56%
Moderate
SOC 19-1011

Animal Scientists

Animal scientists research nutrition, breeding, and management to improve animal production. Genomic selection tools and precision-feeding sensors now generate the data at scale, shifting scientists toward study design and interpretation while herd-level decisions still need biological judgment.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
44
Automation
20%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 19-1032

Foresters

Foresters plan timber harvests, manage conservation projects, and negotiate land agreements. Satellite imagery and LiDAR now inventory stands remotely, changing how foresters measure — but harvest plans, contract negotiation, and walking the tract to verify what the imagery claims stay in the field.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
38
Automation
16%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 19-3032

Industrial-Organizational Psychologists

Industrial-organizational psychologists design employee selection systems, assessments, and development programs. AI hiring tools and people-analytics platforms are exactly their subject matter — and their professional role is validating that those tools actually predict performance without discriminating.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
48
Automation
23%
Augment
66%
Low
SOC 21-1091

Health Education Specialists

Health education specialists develop and deliver programs on prevention, vaccines, and chronic disease. Content-generation tools now draft educational materials instantly, compressing the production side — but community needs assessment, coalition building, and delivering programs that actually change behavior stay human.

Displacement pressure 30
Exposure
48
Automation
24%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 25-1042

Biological Science Teachers, Postsecondary

Biology faculty teach molecular biology and botany while running research programs. AI tools now design experiments and annotate genomes, but the teaching laboratory — pipettes, cultures, dissections — is supervised physical instruction, and research at the bench still runs on trained hands.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
50
Automation
24%
Augment
68%
Low
SOC 25-1052

Chemistry Teachers, Postsecondary

Chemistry faculty teach organic and analytical chemistry while supervising laboratories full of hazardous materials. AI solves textbook problems and drafts lab reports, but teaching students to handle chemicals safely — and catching the mistake before it becomes an incident — is in-person accountability.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
50
Automation
24%
Augment
68%
Low
SOC 25-1124

Foreign Language and Literature Teachers, Postsecondary

Foreign language faculty teach speaking, writing, and literature while machine translation handles casual fluency. That pressures enrollment in basic sequences — the honest headwind — while shifting the discipline's value toward cultural expertise, literature, and the advanced proficiency machines fumble.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
54
Automation
27%
Augment
68%
Moderate
SOC 25-1194

Career and Technical Education Teachers, Postsecondary

Career and technical education teachers train students in welding, healthcare, culinary, and other occupational skills. Their enrollment strengthens as students seek AI-resilient careers — the same disruption that pressures lecture disciplines pushes learners toward hands-on programs with equipment and employer pipelines.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
44
Automation
21%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 25-9044

Teaching Assistants, Postsecondary

Graduate teaching assistants lead discussion sections, run labs, and grade mountains of undergraduate work. AI grading and feedback tools target exactly the grading portion — the most compressible part of the assistantship — while leading a live section and mentoring students stays human.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
56
Automation
30%
Augment
60%
Moderate
SOC 29-1022

Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons

Oral and maxillofacial surgeons remove impacted teeth, place implants, and reconstruct jaws. Implant-planning software and surgical guides now map procedures in 3D before the first incision — precision augmentation — while anesthesia administration and surgery itself remain licensed, physical, and high-stakes.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 29-1128

Exercise Physiologists

Exercise physiologists prescribe and supervise exercise programs for patients with cardiac, pulmonary, and metabolic conditions. Wearables now stream heart-rate and activity data continuously, sharpening the prescription — while clinical oversight of at-risk patients during exercise stays in the room.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 29-1161

Nurse Midwives

Nurse midwives provide prenatal care, attend births, and manage postpartum and newborn care. Fetal-monitoring AI now flags tracing patterns earlier, assisting surveillance — but labor is an unfolding physical event, and the decision to escalate to a physician is a bedside judgment with two lives attached.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 29-1216

General Internal Medicine Physicians

General internists diagnose and manage complex adult illness — the specialty whose core task, the differential diagnosis, is exactly what diagnostic AI performs best on. The honest read: AI triage and draft differentials are real augmentation with real accuracy, while managing multi-morbidity, uncertainty, and the patient relationship stays with the physician.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
40
Automation
17%
Augment
62%
Low
SOC 29-1243

Pediatric Surgeons

Pediatric surgeons operate on fetuses, infants, and children — anatomy measured in millimeters, with parents in the consultation room. Robotic platforms assist minimally invasive cases, but neonatal and pediatric operations remain the most specialized manual work in surgery.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 29-1291

Acupuncturists

Acupuncturists treat patients with needles and related techniques, building treatment plans from individual assessment. There is essentially no automation surface: the treatment is manual, the relationship is the mechanism, and licensure gates practice.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
22
Automation
7%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 29-2036

Medical Dosimetrists

Medical dosimetrists design radiation treatment plans, calculating dose distributions that maximize tumor coverage while sparing organs. Auto-contouring and auto-planning AI now draft plans in minutes — a genuine, deployed capability — making this one of the more exposed allied-health specialties, with verification and oncology-team consultation as the anchor.

Displacement pressure 42
Exposure
56
Automation
31%
Augment
62%
Moderate
SOC 29-2057

Ophthalmic Medical Technicians

Ophthalmic technicians take ocular measurements, operate imaging equipment, and document histories — the staff who actually run the OCT and retinal cameras whose images AI screens. Imaging AI raises the value of clean acquisition while the patient-facing measurement work stays manual.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 29-2092

Hearing Aid Specialists

Hearing aid specialists test hearing, fit devices, and counsel patients on communication. The disruption here is market structure more than AI: over-the-counter hearing aids with app-based self-fitting took the entry-level segment, pressuring the traditional dispensing model directly.

Displacement pressure 32
Exposure
42
Automation
20%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 31-9093

Medical Equipment Preparers

Medical equipment preparers clean, sterilize, and assemble surgical instrument trays. Instrument-tracking software and automated washers now log every cycle, but tray assembly, inspection for defects, and the infection-control chain of custody stay human — a missed instrument delays an operation.

Displacement pressure 38
Exposure
42
Automation
21%
Augment
46%
Moderate
SOC 33-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Correctional Officers

Correctional supervisors direct officers, maintain institutional security, and respond to emergencies including escapes. Surveillance analytics and electronic counts streamline monitoring, but custody decisions, use-of-force review, and emergency command inside a facility are supervisory judgment with legal weight.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 33-1091

First-Line Supervisors of Security Workers

Security supervisors schedule guards, investigate disturbances, and monitor officer performance. Camera analytics and remote-monitoring centers now cover more ground with fewer posts, which concentrates the remaining workforce into supervised teams handling verified incidents — and raises the supervisor's span of responsibility.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
34
Automation
15%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 35-2013

Cooks, Private Household

Private household cooks plan menus, shop, and prepare every meal for a family in their home. Recipe AI and meal-planning apps handle inspiration and logistics, but the job is personal: cooking to one family's tastes, dietary needs, and schedule inside their kitchen.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
32
Automation
14%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 37-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Housekeeping Workers

Housekeeping supervisors inspect rooms, schedule crews, and set cleaning standards for hotels and facilities. Task-management apps now assign and track room status automatically, but quality inspection, guest-issue recovery, and crew leadership happen on the floor.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 37-1012

First-Line Supervisors of Landscaping Workers

Landscaping supervisors schedule crews, inspect grounds, and direct planting and maintenance work. Route-optimization and job-tracking software streamline dispatch, but crew leadership, client walkthroughs, and judgment about plants and soil stay on site.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 39-3012

Gambling and Sports Book Writers and Runners

Gambling and sports book writers take bets, verify amounts, and pay winnings at the counter. Legal mobile sportsbooks moved the volume to apps — the concrete, measurable displacement in this occupation — leaving counter work concentrated in casino sportsbooks serving guests who want the in-person experience.

Displacement pressure 54
Exposure
56
Automation
33%
Augment
46%
High
SOC 39-3021

Motion Picture Projectionists

Motion picture projectionists run and maintain theater projection equipment. This is the canonical displacement story: digital projection ended film threading, and automated booth systems now run multiplexes unattended — employment collapsed over two decades, long before generative AI.

Displacement pressure 66
Exposure
58
Automation
35%
Augment
40%
High
SOC 39-4012

Crematory Operators

Crematory operators run cremation equipment, process remains, and maintain chain-of-custody documentation. The demand driver is secular, not technological: cremation rates have climbed past burial for years. Equipment is modern but the work — handling remains with dignity and precision — is licensed and human.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 39-6011

Baggage Porters and Bellhops

Baggage porters and bellhops move luggage, escort guests, and explain room features. Luggage-cart robots exist as pilots at a few properties, but the role is hospitality theater: the greeting, the local knowledge, and the physical handling of bags through a busy lobby.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
34
Automation
16%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 41-2022

Parts Salespersons

Parts salespersons look up, locate, and sell replacement parts for vehicles, machinery, and equipment. Online catalogs with VIN-based lookup took the simple transactions, but the counter survives on the hard ones: superseded part numbers, fitment judgment, and the mechanic who needs it right now.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
52
Automation
28%
Augment
50%
Moderate
SOC 41-9091

Door-to-Door Sales Workers and Street Vendors

Door-to-door sales workers and street vendors demonstrate products, take orders, and deliver merchandise in person. E-commerce, targeted advertising, and lead-generation platforms displaced most of this channel years ago — a documented decline that digital marketing, not AI, drove.

Displacement pressure 62
Exposure
60
Automation
35%
Augment
44%
High
SOC 45-2011

Agricultural Inspectors

Agricultural inspectors examine food products and processing procedures for safety and grade compliance. Sensor systems and imaging now screen products continuously on the line, flagging suspects — but regulatory inspection, enforcement decisions, and explaining standards to producers remain delegated human authority.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 45-2021

Animal Breeders

Animal breeders select mating pairs, manage births, and maintain herd health. Genomic testing now ranks animals by expected traits before they mature, transforming selection — but heat detection, birthing assistance, and daily animal care are physical work with living animals.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 45-2091

Agricultural Equipment Operators

Agricultural equipment operators drive the tractors, combines, and sprayers that plant and harvest crops. Autosteer and now driverless-capable machinery automate the driving itself — the core of this role — making it the most autonomy-exposed job in agriculture, with implement setup, field-edge judgment, and breakdown response as the remnant.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
46
Automation
24%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 45-3031

Fishing and Hunting Workers

Fishing and hunting workers catch fish and trap game using vessels, nets, and traps. Sonar and fish-finding electronics improve location, but hauling nets in weather, maintaining gear at sea, and reading conditions are physical work — and quota management, not automation, determines how much fishing happens.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 45-4021

Fallers

Fallers cut trees with chainsaws, controlling the direction of fall on terrain too steep or valuable for machines. Mechanized harvesters took the flat, easy ground decades ago — what remains for fallers is exactly the work machines cannot safely do, which is why the occupation persists alongside them.

Displacement pressure 18
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 45-4022

Logging Equipment Operators

Logging equipment operators drive harvesters, skidders, and loaders that fell, process, and move timber. This is forestry's automation story already in place: one operator in a harvester replaces a hand-felling crew, with machine productivity tracked by on-board computers.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-2022

Stonemasons

Stonemasons cut, set, and finish natural stone for buildings, monuments, and restoration work. CNC saws shape stone in fabrication shops, but setting irregular stone on a real wall — matching grain, bedding each piece, finishing joints by trowel — is craft judgment.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2042

Floor Layers, Except Carpet, Wood, and Hard Tiles

Floor layers install resilient sheet and tile flooring over prepared subfloors. Measurement and layout software calculate cuts, but subfloor correction, cutting around the obstacles every real room contains, and forming tight seams stay hands-on.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2071

Paving and Surfacing Equipment Operators

Paving and surfacing equipment operators run the machines that lay asphalt and concrete for roads. Machine-control systems now manage grade and slope automatically, but observing material flow, coordinating truck dumping, and adjusting for conditions on a live paving train stay with the crew.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 47-2142

Paperhangers

Paperhangers measure, cut, and hang wallpaper and fabric wallcoverings, matching patterns and smoothing seams by hand. The trade is small but revived: designer wallpaper is back in residential and hospitality work, and every installation is handwork on a real wall.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 47-2161

Plasterers and Stucco Masons

Plasterers and stucco masons apply coats of plaster and stucco to walls and ceilings, mixing materials and finishing by trowel and spray. Spray equipment speeds application, but the finish — texture, flatness, curing judgment — comes off the trowel in real conditions.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 47-4061

Rail-Track Laying and Maintenance Equipment Operators

Rail-track equipment operators run the tampers, spike drivers, and rail saws that build and maintain track. Geometry cars now measure track conditions automatically and flag defects, directing maintenance — but the repair crews and their machines still go out and fix what the sensors find.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 47-5012

Rotary Drill Operators, Oil and Gas

Rotary drill operators control the draw works and drilling machinery on oil and gas rigs. Automated drilling systems and remote operations centers now optimize drilling parameters in real time, reducing crew sizes on new pads — while rig-floor equipment handling and well-control response stay physical.

Displacement pressure 36
Exposure
38
Automation
19%
Augment
48%
Moderate
SOC 47-5041

Continuous Mining Machine Operators

Continuous mining machine operators run the machines that cut coal and ore from the working face. Remote operation lets some machines run with the operator back from the face — a safety gain that also changes the job — while roof checks, methane testing, and machine repositioning keep miners underground.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
36
Automation
18%
Augment
46%
Moderate
SOC 47-5071

Roustabouts, Oil and Gas

Roustabouts do the manual work of the oilfield: connecting pipe, repairing equipment, walking flow lines for leaks, and guiding crane loads. It is the entry point to the industry — the rung before derrickhand and driller — and leak-detection sensors now assist the inspection part of the day.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
28
Automation
12%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Mechanics and Repairers

Mechanic supervisors direct repair crews, inspect completed work, compute estimates, and manage shop inventories. Fleet-management software and predictive-maintenance alerts now schedule much of the work — supervisors interpret the alerts, verify the repairs, and answer for quality.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-2022

Telecommunications Equipment Installers

Telecommunications equipment installers set up and repair the switching, routing, and premises equipment that carries calls and data. Network functions are virtualizing into software, shrinking central-office hardware — while fiber-to-the-premises installs, business systems, and troubleshooting physical plant stay hands-on.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 49-2097

Audiovisual Equipment Installers and Repairers

Audiovisual equipment installers mount, wire, calibrate, and repair the AV systems in homes, offices, and venues. Remote-monitoring platforms now diagnose connected systems before a truck rolls, but pulling cable, mounting displays, and calibrating rooms are physical installation work.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
38
Automation
17%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-3091

Bicycle Repairers

Bicycle repairers assemble, tune, and repair bikes, and help customers find the right fit. E-bikes added electronic diagnostics to the mechanical craft, but wheel truing, brake bleeding, and fit judgment happen at the bench with the bike and the rider present.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-3092

Recreational Vehicle Service Technicians

RV service technicians diagnose and repair the plumbing, propane, electrical, and climate systems packed into a motorhome. Diagnostic tools read fault codes, but an RV is a house on a truck frame: water intrusion, propane leaks, and slide-out mechanisms fail in ways that need a technician inside the rig.

Displacement pressure 16
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9011

Mechanical Door Repairers

Mechanical door repairers install and service garage doors, openers, and the high-tension springs that make a three-hundred-pound door liftable. Smart openers add app connectivity, but spring work is genuinely dangerous and door alignment is judged on site, in the opening.

Displacement pressure 14
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-9043

Maintenance Workers, Machinery

Machinery maintenance workers lubricate, dismantle, and reassemble production machines on schedule. Vibration sensors and predictive platforms now flag failing bearings before they fail, targeting the work — but the teardown, part replacement, and reassembly still happen with wrenches.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9063

Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners

Musical instrument repairers and tuners tune pianos, repair strings and keys, and restore instruments by ear and by hand. Tuning apps and electronic devices assist pitch measurement, but concert-level voicing, regulation, and restoration are craft skills judged by ear.

Displacement pressure 10
Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-9064

Watch and Clock Repairers

Watch and clock repairers disassemble, clean, and adjust timepieces under magnification. The quartz crisis and smartwatches gutted the volume end decades ago — but the mechanical luxury market's revival means brand service centers cannot hire trained watchmakers fast enough.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
26
Automation
9%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-9091

Coin, Vending, and Amusement Machine Servicers

Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers stock, maintain, and repair machines on route. Telemetry now reports inventory and faults before the visit, changing routes from rounds to targeted calls — but stocking, jam clearing, and component replacement happen at the machine.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
34
Automation
15%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9096

Riggers

Riggers select gear, attach loads, and direct crane movements for construction, shipyards, and events. Lift-planning software calculates loads and clearances, but the rigger's call — sling angles, load balance, hand signals in the moment — decides whether a lift is safe.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Production Workers

Production supervisors set work schedules, inspect output, enforce safety rules, and coordinate between departments. Manufacturing execution systems now track output in real time, but supervisors run the shift: reallocating people when machines go down, enforcing safety, and answering for the numbers.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
42
Automation
20%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 51-2011

Aircraft Structure and Systems Assemblers

Aircraft assemblers rivet, fit, and install structures and systems on airframes. Automated drilling and riveting machines handle long repeatable runs, but aerospace's tight tolerances, confined spaces, and inspection-documented work keep human assemblers on every unit.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 51-2022

Electrical and Electronic Equipment Assemblers

Electronics assemblers wire, solder, and install components into systems. Surface-mount lines automate high-volume boards, splitting the role: the automated line takes volume, while prototypes, rework, cable harnesses, and low-volume builds remain bench work requiring soldering skill.

Displacement pressure 40
Exposure
40
Automation
20%
Augment
48%
Moderate
SOC 51-2041

Structural Metal Fabricators and Fitters

Structural metal fabricators position, align, and weld steel into frames and structures from engineering drawings. CNC cutting and robotic welding handle repetitive production, but custom fabrication — fitting steel to drawings, tacking, and correcting for real-world variance — stays with the fitter.

Displacement pressure 22
Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-3023

Slaughterers and Meat Packers

Slaughterers and meat packers stun, eviscerate, and cut carcasses on processing lines. Robotics has chased this work for decades and keeps losing to variability: no two carcasses are shaped alike, and vision-guided cutting still underperforms a trained knife hand on yield.

Displacement pressure 34
Exposure
34
Automation
17%
Augment
34%
Moderate
SOC 51-5113

Print Binding and Finishing Workers

Bindery workers set up and run the machines that cut, fold, stitch, and bind printed pieces. Digital print workflows automated much of prepress upstream, and finishing equipment keeps adding automation — but short runs, specialty binding, and packaging finishing still need operators who set up and adjust machines.

Displacement pressure 50
Exposure
52
Automation
29%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 51-6031

Sewing Machine Operators

Sewing machine operators guide garments through machines, matching pieces and monitoring stitching. Soft, shifting fabric defeats robotic handling: sewbots work on a few rigid product types, while apparel's variety keeps human operators at the machine — trade policy, not technology, moves this employment.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
36
Automation
18%
Augment
36%
Moderate
SOC 51-6041

Shoe and Leather Workers and Repairers

Shoe and leather workers repair and recondition footwear, luggage, and leather goods by hand. The trade shrank with disposable footwear, but the repair-economy and sustainability movement — plus demand for resoling quality boots and restoring luxury leather goods — gives surviving shops a niche with pricing power.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 51-6092

Fabric and Apparel Patternmakers

Apparel patternmakers create and grade the master patterns garments are made from. CAD pattern software and 3D-fit simulation now handle drafting and virtual sampling — real, deployed tooling — while fit judgment, adjustment after live fittings, and translating a designer's sketch into producible geometry stay expert work.

Displacement pressure 46
Exposure
54
Automation
30%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 51-6093

Upholsterers

Upholsterers fit and secure fabric over furniture frames, building up padding and cutting covers to pattern. Every piece differs — frames sag, springs fail, and fabric must be matched and tensioned by hand — keeping reupholstery a custom craft while new furniture production automated long ago.

Displacement pressure 12
Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 51-8012

Power Distributors and Dispatchers

Power distributors and dispatchers control the flow of electricity across the grid, responding to equipment failures and routing power around outages. Renewables forecasting AI and grid-optimization software now advise dispatch decisions — but NERC-certified operators remain legally accountable for balancing the grid in real time.

Displacement pressure 26
Exposure
34
Automation
15%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 51-8091

Chemical Plant and System Operators

Chemical plant operators control reaction processes from panelboards and control systems. Advanced process control has optimized routine operation for decades — the automation here is mature — leaving operators to handle upsets, draw samples, inspect units, and respond to emergencies.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
32
Automation
15%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 51-8093

Petroleum Pump System Operators and Refinery Operators

Petroleum pump system and refinery operators run the panels that move oil through pipelines and process units. Control systems regulate routine flow automatically — mature automation — while operators verify meters, coordinate product movement, and respond when instruments disagree with reality.

Displacement pressure 24
Exposure
34
Automation
16%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 51-9081

Dental Laboratory Technicians

Dental laboratory technicians fabricate crowns, bridges, and dentures. Intraoral scanning and CAD/CAM milling genuinely transformed this role: digital design replaced waxing for routine units, compressing bench volume — while custom ceramics, shade matching, and complex implant work remain skilled craft.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
54
Automation
30%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 53-3031

Driver/Sales Workers

Driver/sales workers run established routes delivering food, beverages, and supplies while selling to regular customers. Route-optimization software and online ordering compress the logistics, but the role survives on the relationship: the regular customer, the informal credit, the complaint handled at the door.

Displacement pressure 44
Exposure
46
Automation
24%
Augment
42%
Moderate
SOC 53-5031

Ship Engineers

Ship engineers monitor, operate, and repair vessel engines and machinery, keeping propulsion and power running at sea. Engine-room automation and condition monitoring are decades deep, and autonomous-vessel trials run with reduced crews — but licensed engineers remain aboard under crewing rules, fixing what breaks mid-ocean.

Displacement pressure 20
Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 53-6031

Automotive and Watercraft Service Attendants

Automotive and watercraft service attendants fuel vehicles, check fluids, and sell accessories at stations and marinas. Self-service displaced most of this role decades ago — the automation here is complete history — leaving marina work, full-serve niches, and states where an attendant pumps by law.

Displacement pressure 52
Exposure
52
Automation
29%
Augment
42%
Moderate
SOC 53-7061

Cleaners of Vehicles and Equipment

Vehicle and equipment cleaners wash, polish, and detail vehicles and machinery. Conveyor tunnel washes automated exterior washing at scale — the displacement already happened — while interior detailing, hand polishing, and equipment cleaning remain manual work with growing express-detail demand.

Displacement pressure 48
Exposure
42
Automation
23%
Augment
36%
Moderate