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AI displacement risk in Production and Skilled Trades jobs

Compare task exposure, automation potential, augmentation potential, and transition pressure across this work family. Category scores average the current published occupation sample.

Average exposure 33

Task-level reachability by current AI systems.

Average automation 17%

Estimated potential for task transfer to software.

Average augmentation 41%

Estimated potential for AI to expand worker output while keeping human accountability.

Distribution

How Production and Skilled Trades roles spread across the pressure scale

Median 20 0 50 100

Each bar counts published production and skilled trades roles in a 5-point displacement-pressure band. Red bars mark scores of 70 or higher. The dashed line marks the category median of 20.

How AI is changing Production and Skilled Trades work

Production and Skilled Trades jobs do not move as one block. Some tasks are exposed to automation because they are routine, language-heavy, rules-based, or easy to route through software. Other tasks become more valuable because they require trust, physical context, judgment, coaching, compliance, or accountable decisions.

In the current displacement.ai sample, average exposure is 33, average automation pressure is 17%, and average augmentation potential is 41%. The highest displacement pressure in this category is Taxi Drivers, while the most resilient published role is Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters. Use those contrasts to decide whether the better move is redesigning the current job, moving into supervision, or building a bridge to an adjacent occupation.

Occupation pages

Compare AI risk across Production and Skilled Trades roles

Each page below includes task-level exposure, automation and augmentation scores, wage context, transition pathways, upskilling priorities, and a 90-day planning outline.

SOC 51-4041

Machinists

Physical production limits pure software substitution, while setup optimization, maintenance planning, and quality analytics can augment skilled operators.

Exposure
35
Automation
22%
Augment
33%
Moderate
SOC 47-2111

Electricians

Hands-on installation, safety, code compliance, and field troubleshooting make direct AI replacement unlikely, while estimating, diagnostics, and documentation can improve with tools.

Exposure
18
Automation
7%
Augment
31%
Low
SOC 53-7065

Stockers and Order Fillers

Picking routes, inventory lookup, replenishment priorities, and warehouse slotting are increasingly shaped by software and robotics. Physical execution, exception handling, safety, and equipment operation remain important.

Exposure
42
Automation
36%
Augment
28%
Moderate
SOC 53-3032

Heavy and Tractor-Trailer Truck Drivers

Autonomous trucking is live on limited freight corridors, but full substitution is gated by weather, regulation, liability, first-mile and last-mile complexity, and decades of fleet turnover. Near-term, AI changes dispatch, routing, and monitoring more than it removes drivers, with hub-to-hub corridors automating first.

Exposure
38
Automation
27%
Augment
35%
Moderate
SOC 53-7062

Warehouse Workers

Robotics and warehouse automation are absorbing repetitive picking, sorting, and moving tasks in large facilities. Physical adaptability, exception handling, equipment operation, and safety judgment keep human crews essential in most warehouses.

Exposure
52
Automation
42%
Augment
26%
Moderate
SOC 53-7062

Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers, Hand

Manual loading, sorting, and moving work faces pressure from warehouse robotics and mechanized handling, especially in high-volume facilities. Irregular environments, construction sites, docks, and mixed physical tasks resist full automation.

Exposure
48
Automation
38%
Augment
24%
Moderate
SOC 53-3033

Light Truck Drivers

Route optimization and dispatch apps already direct most delivery work, and autonomous delivery pilots target the same routes. Apartment complexes, customer handoffs, vehicle care, and exception handling keep human drivers needed near term.

Exposure
44
Automation
30%
Augment
38%
Moderate
SOC 53-7051

Industrial Truck and Tractor Operators

Automated guided vehicles and robotic pallet handling target exactly the repetitive loops forklift operators run in large facilities. Mixed loads, irregular yards, safety judgment, and equipment care keep skilled operators needed outside automated sites.

Exposure
40
Automation
32%
Augment
26%
Moderate
SOC 49-9041

Industrial Machinery Mechanics

Predictive maintenance sensors and AI diagnostics change how failures are found, but hands-on repair, disassembly, alignment, and fabrication remain stubbornly physical. More factory automation literally means more machines needing mechanics.

Exposure
26
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-4121

Welders, Cutters, Solderers, and Brazers

Robotic welding handles high-volume repetitive seams, but most welding work happens in variable positions, environments, and materials where human judgment, setup skill, and certification matter. AI assists inspection and planning more than it replaces welders.

Exposure
16
Automation
8%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 47-2152

Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters

Plumbing happens inside walls, under floors, and in aging buildings where no two jobs match. AI can help with diagnostics, estimating, and code lookup, but installation, repair, and inspection work is physical, licensed, and local.

Exposure
14
Automation
6%
Augment
32%
Low
SOC 47-2031

Carpenters

Framing, finishing, and repair carpentry are physical, site-specific, and highly variable. AI tools help with layout, measurement, and estimating, while prefab and robotics absorb only the standardized factory portions of the trade.

Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 49-9021

Heating, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers

Smart diagnostics and connected thermostats help technicians find faults faster, but installation, brazing, refrigerant handling, and system balancing are hands-on work in every kind of building. Efficiency mandates and electrification are expanding demand.

Exposure
20
Automation
8%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 11-9021

Construction Managers

AI tools accelerate scheduling, cost reporting, and document review, but coordinating crews, subcontractors, inspectors, weather, and change orders on live sites is irreducibly situational. The role gains productivity tools without losing its human core.

Exposure
38
Automation
16%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 47-2061

Construction Laborers

Site preparation, material handling, and demolition are physical work in unstructured environments where robotics remain primitive. Layout tools, laser guidance, and equipment automation assist the work without removing the worker.

Exposure
26
Automation
18%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 47-2181

Roofers

Inspecting, repairing, and installing roofs is elevated, hazardous, variable physical work that drones can photograph but not perform. Measurement and estimation software assists bidding while installation and repair remain manual.

Exposure
16
Automation
8%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 47-2231

Solar Panel Installers

Mounting panels, running wiring, and weather-sealing roofs is physical, code-governed work on unique structures. Design and layout software accelerates system planning, but installation, testing, and troubleshooting stay on the roof.

Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2073

Operating Engineers and Heavy Equipment Operators

Autonomous graders and remote-controlled dozers are real on large, uniform sites, but most equipment work happens around utilities, crews, and unpredictable terrain. GPS grade-control and telematics make skilled operators more precise, not obsolete.

Exposure
30
Automation
22%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 49-3023

Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics

Computerized diagnostics and AI-guided repair plans make finding faults faster, but vehicles still need hands-on disassembly, repair, and testing. Electric and software-heavy vehicles raise the value of technicians who master new systems.

Exposure
30
Automation
14%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-3011

Aircraft Mechanics and Service Technicians

Predictive maintenance analytics and AI-assisted diagnostics flag aircraft problems earlier, but certified inspection, repair, and return-to-service sign-off are regulated physical tasks. Aviation safety rules make human certification mandatory.

Exposure
26
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-9071

Maintenance and Repair Workers, General

Every building needs someone who can diagnose a noise, repair a pump, patch drywall, and adjust a boiler in the same week. Smart-building sensors help prioritize work orders; the varied physical repair work itself resists automation almost entirely.

Exposure
28
Automation
14%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-9081

Wind Turbine Service Technicians

Technicians climb towers to troubleshoot mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical systems in remote locations — work no robot performs. Sensor data and predictive analytics direct them to problems earlier, which increases the value of skilled field response.

Exposure
24
Automation
12%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 51-9161

Computer Numerically Controlled Tool Operators

CNC operators work alongside the automation itself: loading workpieces, monitoring runs, listening for tool wear, and adjusting feeds. Lights-out machining absorbs pure button-pushing, while setup judgment, quality checks, and malfunction response stay human.

Exposure
52
Automation
42%
Augment
34%
Moderate
SOC 51-9061

Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers

Machine vision inspects products faster and more consistently than human eyes for standardized defects, putting real pressure on visual inspection work. Calibration, complex judgment calls, root-cause reporting, and quality-system accountability keep skilled inspectors relevant.

Exposure
60
Automation
48%
Augment
40%
Moderate
SOC 51-2092

Team Assemblers

Assembly line work is the historical heart of factory automation, and collaborative robots keep taking repetitive stations. Line balancing, quality checks, changeover judgment, and rotation across tasks keep human assemblers present in most plants.

Exposure
46
Automation
38%
Augment
24%
Moderate
SOC 53-3054

Taxi Drivers

Ride-hail apps already restructured this occupation, and robotaxis now compete directly on the same urban routes. Airport complexity, passenger assistance, local knowledge, and irregular trips keep human drivers in the mix, but the trajectory is clearly downward.

Exposure
60
Automation
48%
Augment
26%
High
SOC 53-2011

Airline Pilots, Copilots, and Flight Engineers

Autopilot has flown planes for decades, yet pilot demand keeps rising. Emergency judgment, crew coordination, weather decision-making, and legal command authority make piloting a case study in why automation assists rather than replaces certified humans.

Exposure
34
Automation
18%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 53-2031

Flight Attendants

Flight attendants are certified safety professionals first and service workers second: evacuations, medical emergencies, and threat monitoring at 35,000 feet cannot be automated. Service efficiencies change cabin staffing ratios slowly, but the safety mandate persists.

Exposure
24
Automation
10%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 53-2021

Air Traffic Controllers

Decision-support tools help controllers sequence traffic and detect conflicts, but every instruction to a pilot carries human legal authority. Emergency handling, judgment under time pressure, and system-wide coordination keep controllers indispensable.

Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 47-4011

Construction and Building Inspectors

Drone imagery and AI plan review can flag potential code issues from drawings, but inspectors walk sites, measure structures, and exercise legal authority to stop work. Physical verification and code judgment under liability keep the role human.

Exposure
44
Automation
22%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 49-3031

Bus and Truck Mechanics and Diesel Engine Specialists

Fleet telematics and predictive maintenance flag diesel problems before breakdowns, changing when trucks come into the bay — not who repairs them. Overhauling engines, aligning wheels, and troubleshooting heavy equipment remain hands-on work.

Exposure
28
Automation
14%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-9051

Electrical Power-Line Installers and Repairers

Climbing poles and stringing conductors on live infrastructure is hazardous physical work no robot performs. Smart-grid sensors help utilities locate faults faster, which directs line crews to problems — the repair itself still requires a bucket truck and a crew.

Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
32%
Low
SOC 51-4111

Tool and Die Makers

CAD/CAM software and CNC machining have already automated much of routine tool production, which is why this trade shrank. What remains is high-skill work: complex dies, precision fitting, and repair judgment that shops struggle to hire for.

Exposure
32
Automation
18%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-3011

Bakers

Industrial bakeries automate mixing, portioning, and baking at scale, but artisan and retail baking depends on sensory judgment, hand shaping, and decorating that machines handle poorly. Recipe development and quality judgment remain human craft.

Exposure
28
Automation
18%
Augment
24%
Low
SOC 51-8013

Power Plant Operators

Control rooms are already highly automated, which is why this occupation has contracted — but operators remain legally accountable for safe power generation. Abnormal-condition response, equipment monitoring judgment, and regulatory compliance keep humans at the boards.

Exposure
46
Automation
34%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 47-2051

Cement Masons and Concrete Finishers

Placing, leveling, and finishing concrete is weather-sensitive physical craft: reading the pour, timing the finish, and working the surface before it sets. Form-setting software and layout tools assist planning; the trowel work stays manual.

Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2081

Drywall and Ceiling Tile Installers

Measuring, cutting, hanging, and finishing drywall inside unique rooms and frames is physical craft work. Layout software and laser measurement speed planning; robots handle none of the hanging or finishing on real interiors.

Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 47-2141

Painters, Construction and Maintenance

Surface preparation, masking, and coating application in variable conditions are physical work robots perform only on flat factory lines. Color-matching software and estimating tools assist; prep judgment and finish quality stay manual.

Exposure
20
Automation
9%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2151

Pipelayers

Laying pipe means digging trenches, grading bases, and joining sections underground around existing utilities. Laser guidance and GPS assist grading accuracy; the trench work itself — variable soil, live utilities, confined spaces — stays manual.

Exposure
18
Automation
8%
Augment
28%
Low
SOC 47-2211

Sheet Metal Workers

Shop fabrication is increasingly automated with CNC plasma cutters and coil lines — BIM models now drive the cutting. Field installation, fitting ductwork into real buildings, and on-site modification keep the craft physical.

Exposure
28
Automation
15%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2221

Structural Iron and Steel Workers

Connecting steel at height — guiding beams, bolting connections, reading lift plans — is among the most physically demanding and hazardous work in construction. Robotics and exoskeleton pilots assist handling; nobody has automated the iron itself.

Exposure
16
Automation
7%
Augment
30%
Low
SOC 47-4021

Elevator and Escalator Installers and Repairers

Installing and repairing vertical transportation is licensed, safety-critical electromechanical work inside shafts and machine rooms. Remote monitoring predicts failures and dispatches mechanics — the repair itself requires a licensed technician on site.

Exposure
22
Automation
9%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-4041

Hazardous Materials Removal Workers

Removing asbestos, lead, and contaminated materials is regulated physical work in protective gear inside containment zones. Monitoring devices and documentation software assist; nobody robots their way through an abatement.

Exposure
22
Automation
10%
Augment
32%
Low
SOC 47-4051

Highway Maintenance Workers

Patching pavement, clearing drainage, plowing snow, and setting work zones are physical tasks along live roadways. Route optimization and fleet telematics assist planning; the flagging, shoveling, and equipment work stay manual.

Exposure
22
Automation
12%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 49-9052

Telecommunications Line Installers and Repairers

Stringing fiber, climbing poles, and splicing cables in the field is physical network construction. AI network monitoring flags faults remotely; building and repairing the physical plant requires hands on the hardware.

Exposure
22
Automation
10%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-2091

Avionics Technicians

Installing, testing, and troubleshooting aircraft electronics is certified hands-on work, and it is expanding as aircraft become software-defined. Built-in test equipment and diagnostics assist; certified installation and sign-off stay human.

Exposure
32
Automation
14%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-3021

Automotive Body and Related Repairers

Frame straightening, panel replacement, and refinishing are physical craft work on vehicles that arrive damaged in infinite variety. AI photo estimating speeds the paperwork upstream; the metal and paint work itself has no software analogue.

Exposure
26
Automation
12%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 49-3052

Motorcycle Mechanics

Diagnosing and rebuilding motorcycle engines, transmissions, and suspensions is hands-on shop work. Manufacturer diagnostic software guides troubleshooting; the teardown, judgment, and rebuild remain manual craft.

Exposure
26
Automation
11%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 49-3042

Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanics, Except Engines

Repairing bulldozers, excavators, and cranes — often in the field — is heavy physical troubleshooting. Telematics and diagnostic software flag problems early; someone still crawls under the machine with tools.

Exposure
28
Automation
13%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-9094

Locksmiths and Safe Repairers

Smart locks and electronic access systems are changing what locksmiths install, not whether they are needed. Emergency lockouts, safe work, and access-system installation happen at the door, with tools, in person.

Exposure
26
Automation
11%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-2098

Security and Fire Alarm Systems Installers

This trade installs the AI cameras and smart sensors other occupations worry about. Running cable, mounting devices, programming panels, and commissioning systems on site is physical work that adoption directly grows.

Exposure
28
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-3021

Butchers and Meat Cutters

Processing-line automation handles standardized cuts, but retail and specialty butchery — custom cuts, customer requests, variable carcasses — remains knife work guided by judgment. The counter butcher's expertise is the product.

Exposure
22
Automation
12%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 51-9162

Computer Numerically Controlled Tool Programmers

CAM software with AI assistance now generates toolpaths from models, compressing routine programming hours. Prove-out judgment, tolerance strategy, and shop-floor problem solving keep programmers accountable for what the machine actually cuts.

Exposure
60
Automation
38%
Augment
70%
Moderate
SOC 51-6052

Tailors, Dressmakers, and Custom Sewers

Fitting and altering garments on real bodies is handwork: pinning, adjusting drape, and sewing to an individual's measurements. AI pattern tools assist design; the fitting room and sewing machine stay human-operated.

Exposure
30
Automation
16%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-9071

Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers

Soldering settings, setting stones, and repairing heirlooms is precision handwork at the bench. CAD design tools and 3D printing assist custom design; the bench craft, appraisal trust, and repair judgment stay manual.

Exposure
30
Automation
15%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-9141

Semiconductor Processing Technicians

Fabs are already among the most automated production environments on earth — this occupation exists inside that automation, tending equipment, inspecting wafers, and keeping processes running. US fab expansion matters more to its outlook than any new automation.

Exposure
54
Automation
44%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 51-8031

Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant and System Operators

SCADA systems monitor and adjust treatment automatically, which is why plants run lean. Licensed operators remain accountable for public water safety: testing, chemical dosing judgment, emergency response, and regulatory compliance.

Exposure
42
Automation
28%
Augment
46%
Moderate
SOC 51-8021

Stationary Engineers and Boiler Operators

Operating boilers and building systems is increasingly sensor-monitored, but someone licensed must respond to alarms, isolate equipment for repair, and keep steam and heating systems safe. The accountability sits with a person on site.

Exposure
40
Automation
26%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-8011

Nuclear Power Reactor Operators

Reactor operators hold federal licenses to control nuclear plants — the most regulated operations role in the economy. Automated monitoring and procedures assist, but every control action, abnormal response, and shutdown decision requires a licensed human.

Exposure
44
Automation
26%
Augment
56%
Low
SOC 53-7021

Crane and Tower Operators

Remote operation and anti-collision systems assist crane work, but lifts over live sites require certified operators judging loads, wind, and ground conditions in real time. Certification requirements and catastrophic-risk accountability keep humans in the seat.

Exposure
34
Automation
24%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 53-7081

Refuse and Recyclable Material Collectors

Automated side-loader trucks cut collection crews from two or three to one driver in many cities — a real, deployed labor reduction. Irregular pickups, missed-bin callbacks, and non-standard waste keep crews on routes.

Exposure
30
Automation
22%
Augment
22%
Low
SOC 53-3051

Bus Drivers, School

Autonomous vehicle pilots target highways, not school routes: the driver also supervises children — boarding safety, behavior management, and getting kids across the road. Districts cannot fill these seats today, autonomy or not.

Exposure
34
Automation
20%
Augment
34%
Low
SOC 53-3052

Bus Drivers, Transit and Intercity

Autonomous shuttles operate on fixed, slow, geofenced routes — the narrowest slice of transit. Urban bus driving mixes traffic judgment, passenger assistance, accessibility duties, and disruption handling that no pilot program covers.

Exposure
40
Automation
28%
Augment
32%
Moderate
SOC 53-4011

Locomotive Engineers

Positive Train Control automates speed enforcement, and railroads push for one-person crews — the concrete automation debate in rail. Engineers retain control authority over miles-long trains, grade judgment, and emergency response that regulators keep human.

Exposure
38
Automation
26%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 53-4031

Railroad Conductors and Yardmasters

Conductors coordinate train movement, signal engineers, and manage switching and documentation — the role railroads target in one-person-crew proposals. Union agreements, FRA safety rules, and yard complexity keep the position defended.

Exposure
36
Automation
24%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 45-2092

Farmworkers and Laborers, Crop, Nursery, and Greenhouse

Harvest robots and precision sprayers are real but cover specific crops in uniform conditions. Hand harvest of delicate produce, greenhouse work, and the sheer variety of farm tasks keep manual labor the backbone of agriculture.

Exposure
28
Automation
18%
Augment
26%
Low
SOC 47-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Construction Trades and Extraction Workers

AI scheduling, photo documentation, and progress-tracking tools now automate much of a foreman's information work. Crew leadership, safety enforcement, subcontractor coordination, and split-second site judgment keep field supervision human.

Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
58%
Low
SOC 49-2011

Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers

AI has absorbed remote software troubleshooting, but physical hardware still fails in physical places: broken ATMs, failed drives, damaged devices. Component-level diagnosis, part replacement, and on-site service keep repairers in demand.

Exposure
38
Automation
20%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 49-9062

Medical Equipment Repairers

Hospitals keep buying sophisticated, software-driven medical devices — and every one needs installation, calibration, safety testing, and repair by a qualified technician. Device complexity and regulatory requirements make this a growth trade, not an automation target.

Exposure
32
Automation
14%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 53-4041

Subway and Streetcar Operators

Driverless metro lines operate in several countries, making this one of transit's most concrete automation cases. US adoption faces union agreements, safety regulators, and platform-door capital costs — operators remain standard on American systems.

Exposure
56
Automation
44%
Augment
30%
Moderate
SOC 53-7064

Packers and Packagers, Hand

Packing stations are warehouse automation's clearest target: dimensioning machines, auto-baggers, and robotic packers handle standard shipments. Fragile, oversized, and exception packing plus quality checks keep humans at the station.

Exposure
56
Automation
46%
Augment
22%
Moderate
SOC 47-2011

Boilermakers

Boilermakers assemble, weld, and repair boilers and pressure vessels, much of it during power-plant and refinery outages. Drone inspections and ultrasonic testing robots now survey vessels for defects, but confined-space rigging, pressure welding, and fitting steel in place stay with the boilermaker.

Exposure
32
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 47-2021

Brickmasons and Blockmasons

Brickmasons lay brick, block, and stone with mortar, course by course. Robotic bricklaying prototypes have existed for years and remain confined to simple, repetitive walls; corners, arches, restoration matching, and working around existing structures are craft judgment that machines have not cracked.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2041

Carpet Installers

Carpet installers measure, cut, seam, and stretch carpet in homes and commercial spaces. Measurement apps and layout software calculate material needs, but every room is different: seams must disappear, patterns must align, and carpet must be stretched tight by a person kneeling on it.

Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-2044

Tile and Stone Setters

Tile and stone setters cut, lay, and grout tile in bathrooms, kitchens, and lobbies. Layout software plans patterns and cuts, but substrate judgment, waterproofing, and fitting tile around the irregular reality of actual rooms keep this a handcraft trade.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2121

Glaziers

Glaziers cut, fit, and install glass in windows, skylights, and curtain walls, often on scaffolding many stories up. CNC cutting prepares glass in the shop, but setting a six-hundred-pound panel with a crane and suction cups in the wind is field judgment with serious safety stakes.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-2131

Insulation Workers

Insulation workers fit, wrap, and blow insulation into floors, ceilings, and mechanical systems. Thermal-imaging audits identify where insulation fails, which directs the work rather than doing it — someone still crawls the attic, wraps the duct, and packs the blower hopper.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 47-2171

Reinforcing Iron and Rebar Workers

Rebar workers position and tie the steel that reinforces concrete structures. BIM models and prefabricated rebar cages now arrive engineered and partially assembled, but placing, spacing, and tying steel in forms — often on elevated decks — is physical, plan-reading fieldwork.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-4031

Fence Erectors

Fence erectors lay out lines, dig postholes, set posts, and stretch fence across residential, commercial, and agricultural sites. Utility-locate technology and layout apps reduce the research time, but the work is augers, concrete, and tensioned wire in every soil condition.

Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 47-4071

Septic Tank Servicers and Sewer Pipe Cleaners

Septic servicers and sewer cleaners operate jetters, vacuum trucks, and rodders to clear lines and service tanks. Camera inspection systems now show exactly where a blockage sits, which makes the work more targeted — but someone still runs the hose down the line and pumps the tank.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-5032

Explosives Workers and Blasters

Explosives workers place and detonate charges for construction, demolition, and mining. Electronic detonation systems and blast-design software now model shots before a hole is drilled, but every step — examining the blast area, loading charges, clearing the site, keeping federal explosives records — is licensed, inspected human work.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-2021

Radio, Cellular, and Tower Equipment Installers

Radio, cellular, and tower equipment installers climb towers to mount antennas, run cables, and test transmission components. Network-design software and drone inspections plan the work, but bolting an antenna to steel three hundred feet up is physical work with serious fall-protection stakes.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-2094

Industrial Electronics Repairers

Industrial electronics repairers test, diagnose, and repair the electronic controls that run factories. Ironically, the more plants automate, the more this role grows: every robot, PLC, and sensor network needs someone who can trace a fault to the board level and get the line running again.

Exposure
34
Automation
14%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-3022

Automotive Glass Installers

Automotive glass installers remove and replace windshields and windows, bonding glass with urethane that must cure correctly to keep the roof structure sound. The trade's complication is ADAS: cameras mounted to windshields require recalibration after replacement, adding a diagnostic layer to a physical job.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-3041

Farm Equipment Mechanics

Farm equipment mechanics maintain and repair tractors, harvesters, and irrigation systems — increasingly computer-controlled machines. Dealer diagnostic software pinpoints faults electronically, but a combine that dies mid-harvest needs a mechanic in the field, and harvest windows wait for no one.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-3051

Motorboat Mechanics

Motorboat mechanics maintain and repair outboard and inboard engines, then test them under way on the water. Engine diagnostic software reads fault codes, but marine environments corrode everything differently, and verifying a repair means running the boat — a test no bench simulator fully replicates.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-3053

Small Engine Mechanics

Small engine mechanics repair the gasoline engines in mowers, saws, and generators. The real displacement force is battery power, not AI: electric equipment eliminates carburetors and ignition systems wholesale, shifting the repair skill set toward motors, controllers, and battery packs.

Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-3093

Tire Repairers and Changers

Tire repairers and changers mount, balance, and repair tires at volume. Balancing machines and TPMS diagnostics automate the measurement, but every wheel still gets unbolted, mounted, torqued, and road-tested by a person — often on the roadside for commercial fleets.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-9044

Millwrights

Millwrights install, align, and level industrial machinery — setting clearances and alignments that determine whether a production line runs true. Laser-alignment tools have transformed the measurement, but rigging multi-ton machines into place and dialing them to specification is judgment-intensive physical work.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9092

Commercial Divers

Commercial divers inspect, repair, and build underwater: bridge pilings, ship hulls, dams, and offshore infrastructure. Remotely operated vehicles now handle many inspection surveys, but construction, welding, and salvage underwater require a diver — working in zero visibility, by touch, under decompression limits.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 49-9031

Home Appliance Repairers

Home appliance repairers diagnose and fix washers, refrigerators, and ovens in customers' homes. Smart appliances now report their own fault codes before the technician arrives, but sealed-system refrigeration work, gas connections, and the crawl behind the machine stay human.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-5111

Prepress Technicians

Prepress technicians prepare files for printing: preflight checks, proofing, page assembly, and plate output. Desktop publishing and automated preflight software absorbed most of this work years ago — a documented displacement that predates AI — and web-to-print automation continues to shrink what remains.

Exposure
62
Automation
41%
Augment
48%
High
SOC 51-5112

Printing Press Operators

Printing press operators set up, run, and adjust presses, monitoring registration, ink density, and automated fault systems. The displacement story here is documented history: print volume has declined for two decades as media went digital, and modern presses automate the adjustments operators once made by hand.

Exposure
58
Automation
34%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 51-6011

Laundry and Dry-Cleaning Workers

Laundry and dry-cleaning workers sort, wash, dry, and fold articles in commercial and industrial laundries. Tunnel washers and automated folding systems now move most of the volume in large plants, with workers feeding machines, catching misfolds, and handling the delicate items automation cannot.

Exposure
50
Automation
28%
Augment
34%
Moderate
SOC 51-7011

Cabinetmakers and Bench Carpenters

Cabinetmakers build custom cabinets and high-grade furniture, from blueprint to finished joint. CNC routers now cut components with perfect repeatability in production shops, but custom fitting to real rooms, veneer and finish work, and one-off commissions remain bench craftsmanship.

Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 53-2012

Commercial Pilots

Commercial pilots fly charter, cargo, agricultural, and survey missions outside the airline system. The single-pilot-operations debate applies here as at the airlines, but these missions add variables automation handles worst: unimproved strips, low-level agricultural passes, and on-demand routing into unfamiliar airports.

Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 53-3011

Ambulance Drivers and Attendants

Ambulance drivers and attendants drive emergency vehicles, load patients on stretchers, and assist EMTs on calls. Routing software optimizes the drive, but the role's anchor is patient handling: lifting, loading, and caring for people in transit — work that no vehicle automation touches.

Exposure
34
Automation
15%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 53-3053

Shuttle Drivers and Chauffeurs

Shuttle drivers and chauffeurs run fixed and on-demand routes for airports, hotels, and campuses. Autonomous shuttle pilots operate today on exactly these routes — low-speed, geofenced, predictable — making this one of the driving roles where automation is deployed fact rather than forecast.

Exposure
48
Automation
25%
Augment
40%
Moderate
SOC 53-5011

Sailors and Marine Oilers

Sailors and marine oilers stand watch, handle mooring lines, maintain machinery, and keep engineering logs aboard commercial vessels. Autonomous vessel trials make headlines, but international crewing rules, port operations, and the physical reality of lines, barges, and machinery keep deck crews aboard.

Exposure
28
Automation
12%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 53-5021

Ship Captains and Mates

Ship captains and mates direct courses, dock vessels, and command crews through locks, narrows, and congested harbors. Voyage-optimization software and electronic chart systems sharpen navigation, but the docking maneuver — wind, current, tug coordination, and a hundred thousand tons of momentum — is master-level judgment.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 53-6051

Transportation Inspectors

Transportation inspectors examine freight, vehicles, and handling procedures for safety compliance. Telematics and EDR data now document what happens between inspections, augmenting the record — but the inspection itself, physically verifying load securement and finding the violation a sensor missed, stays on site.

Exposure
36
Automation
16%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 53-6021

Parking Attendants

Parking attendants park and retrieve vehicles, collect fees, and manage lots. Ticketless payment and automated garages now handle the transaction and, increasingly, the parking itself — robotic garages stack cars without drivers. The honest reading is high pressure on the traditional lot model.

Exposure
54
Automation
31%
Augment
34%
High
SOC 53-1043

Material Moving Supervisors

Material moving supervisors assign work, enforce safety rules, and coordinate the loading crews and equipment that keep freight flowing. Warehouse management systems now optimize assignments algorithmically, but someone still walks the floor, resolves the conflict, owns the safety record, and answers for the shift.

Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 45-2011

Agricultural Inspectors

Agricultural inspectors examine food products and processing procedures for safety and grade compliance. Sensor systems and imaging now screen products continuously on the line, flagging suspects — but regulatory inspection, enforcement decisions, and explaining standards to producers remain delegated human authority.

Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 45-2021

Animal Breeders

Animal breeders select mating pairs, manage births, and maintain herd health. Genomic testing now ranks animals by expected traits before they mature, transforming selection — but heat detection, birthing assistance, and daily animal care are physical work with living animals.

Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 45-2091

Agricultural Equipment Operators

Agricultural equipment operators drive the tractors, combines, and sprayers that plant and harvest crops. Autosteer and now driverless-capable machinery automate the driving itself — the core of this role — making it the most autonomy-exposed job in agriculture, with implement setup, field-edge judgment, and breakdown response as the remnant.

Exposure
46
Automation
24%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 45-3031

Fishing and Hunting Workers

Fishing and hunting workers catch fish and trap game using vessels, nets, and traps. Sonar and fish-finding electronics improve location, but hauling nets in weather, maintaining gear at sea, and reading conditions are physical work — and quota management, not automation, determines how much fishing happens.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 45-4021

Fallers

Fallers cut trees with chainsaws, controlling the direction of fall on terrain too steep or valuable for machines. Mechanized harvesters took the flat, easy ground decades ago — what remains for fallers is exactly the work machines cannot safely do, which is why the occupation persists alongside them.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 45-4022

Logging Equipment Operators

Logging equipment operators drive harvesters, skidders, and loaders that fell, process, and move timber. This is forestry's automation story already in place: one operator in a harvester replaces a hand-felling crew, with machine productivity tracked by on-board computers.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 47-2022

Stonemasons

Stonemasons cut, set, and finish natural stone for buildings, monuments, and restoration work. CNC saws shape stone in fabrication shops, but setting irregular stone on a real wall — matching grain, bedding each piece, finishing joints by trowel — is craft judgment.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2042

Floor Layers, Except Carpet, Wood, and Hard Tiles

Floor layers install resilient sheet and tile flooring over prepared subfloors. Measurement and layout software calculate cuts, but subfloor correction, cutting around the obstacles every real room contains, and forming tight seams stay hands-on.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
40%
Low
SOC 47-2071

Paving and Surfacing Equipment Operators

Paving and surfacing equipment operators run the machines that lay asphalt and concrete for roads. Machine-control systems now manage grade and slope automatically, but observing material flow, coordinating truck dumping, and adjusting for conditions on a live paving train stay with the crew.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 47-2142

Paperhangers

Paperhangers measure, cut, and hang wallpaper and fabric wallcoverings, matching patterns and smoothing seams by hand. The trade is small but revived: designer wallpaper is back in residential and hospitality work, and every installation is handwork on a real wall.

Exposure
22
Automation
8%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 47-2161

Plasterers and Stucco Masons

Plasterers and stucco masons apply coats of plaster and stucco to walls and ceilings, mixing materials and finishing by trowel and spray. Spray equipment speeds application, but the finish — texture, flatness, curing judgment — comes off the trowel in real conditions.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 47-4061

Rail-Track Laying and Maintenance Equipment Operators

Rail-track equipment operators run the tampers, spike drivers, and rail saws that build and maintain track. Geometry cars now measure track conditions automatically and flag defects, directing maintenance — but the repair crews and their machines still go out and fix what the sensors find.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 47-5012

Rotary Drill Operators, Oil and Gas

Rotary drill operators control the draw works and drilling machinery on oil and gas rigs. Automated drilling systems and remote operations centers now optimize drilling parameters in real time, reducing crew sizes on new pads — while rig-floor equipment handling and well-control response stay physical.

Exposure
38
Automation
19%
Augment
48%
Moderate
SOC 47-5041

Continuous Mining Machine Operators

Continuous mining machine operators run the machines that cut coal and ore from the working face. Remote operation lets some machines run with the operator back from the face — a safety gain that also changes the job — while roof checks, methane testing, and machine repositioning keep miners underground.

Exposure
36
Automation
18%
Augment
46%
Moderate
SOC 47-5071

Roustabouts, Oil and Gas

Roustabouts do the manual work of the oilfield: connecting pipe, repairing equipment, walking flow lines for leaks, and guiding crane loads. It is the entry point to the industry — the rung before derrickhand and driller — and leak-detection sensors now assist the inspection part of the day.

Exposure
28
Automation
12%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Mechanics and Repairers

Mechanic supervisors direct repair crews, inspect completed work, compute estimates, and manage shop inventories. Fleet-management software and predictive-maintenance alerts now schedule much of the work — supervisors interpret the alerts, verify the repairs, and answer for quality.

Exposure
40
Automation
19%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-2022

Telecommunications Equipment Installers

Telecommunications equipment installers set up and repair the switching, routing, and premises equipment that carries calls and data. Network functions are virtualizing into software, shrinking central-office hardware — while fiber-to-the-premises installs, business systems, and troubleshooting physical plant stay hands-on.

Exposure
40
Automation
18%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 49-2097

Audiovisual Equipment Installers and Repairers

Audiovisual equipment installers mount, wire, calibrate, and repair the AV systems in homes, offices, and venues. Remote-monitoring platforms now diagnose connected systems before a truck rolls, but pulling cable, mounting displays, and calibrating rooms are physical installation work.

Exposure
38
Automation
17%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 49-3091

Bicycle Repairers

Bicycle repairers assemble, tune, and repair bikes, and help customers find the right fit. E-bikes added electronic diagnostics to the mechanical craft, but wheel truing, brake bleeding, and fit judgment happen at the bench with the bike and the rider present.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-3092

Recreational Vehicle Service Technicians

RV service technicians diagnose and repair the plumbing, propane, electrical, and climate systems packed into a motorhome. Diagnostic tools read fault codes, but an RV is a house on a truck frame: water intrusion, propane leaks, and slide-out mechanisms fail in ways that need a technician inside the rig.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9011

Mechanical Door Repairers

Mechanical door repairers install and service garage doors, openers, and the high-tension springs that make a three-hundred-pound door liftable. Smart openers add app connectivity, but spring work is genuinely dangerous and door alignment is judged on site, in the opening.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-9043

Maintenance Workers, Machinery

Machinery maintenance workers lubricate, dismantle, and reassemble production machines on schedule. Vibration sensors and predictive platforms now flag failing bearings before they fail, targeting the work — but the teardown, part replacement, and reassembly still happen with wrenches.

Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9063

Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners

Musical instrument repairers and tuners tune pianos, repair strings and keys, and restore instruments by ear and by hand. Tuning apps and electronic devices assist pitch measurement, but concert-level voicing, regulation, and restoration are craft skills judged by ear.

Exposure
24
Automation
8%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 49-9064

Watch and Clock Repairers

Watch and clock repairers disassemble, clean, and adjust timepieces under magnification. The quartz crisis and smartwatches gutted the volume end decades ago — but the mechanical luxury market's revival means brand service centers cannot hire trained watchmakers fast enough.

Exposure
26
Automation
9%
Augment
42%
Low
SOC 49-9091

Coin, Vending, and Amusement Machine Servicers

Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers stock, maintain, and repair machines on route. Telemetry now reports inventory and faults before the visit, changing routes from rounds to targeted calls — but stocking, jam clearing, and component replacement happen at the machine.

Exposure
34
Automation
15%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 49-9096

Riggers

Riggers select gear, attach loads, and direct crane movements for construction, shipyards, and events. Lift-planning software calculates loads and clearances, but the rigger's call — sling angles, load balance, hand signals in the moment — decides whether a lift is safe.

Exposure
26
Automation
10%
Augment
44%
Low
SOC 51-1011

First-Line Supervisors of Production Workers

Production supervisors set work schedules, inspect output, enforce safety rules, and coordinate between departments. Manufacturing execution systems now track output in real time, but supervisors run the shift: reallocating people when machines go down, enforcing safety, and answering for the numbers.

Exposure
42
Automation
20%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 51-2011

Aircraft Structure and Systems Assemblers

Aircraft assemblers rivet, fit, and install structures and systems on airframes. Automated drilling and riveting machines handle long repeatable runs, but aerospace's tight tolerances, confined spaces, and inspection-documented work keep human assemblers on every unit.

Exposure
30
Automation
12%
Augment
48%
Low
SOC 51-2022

Electrical and Electronic Equipment Assemblers

Electronics assemblers wire, solder, and install components into systems. Surface-mount lines automate high-volume boards, splitting the role: the automated line takes volume, while prototypes, rework, cable harnesses, and low-volume builds remain bench work requiring soldering skill.

Exposure
40
Automation
20%
Augment
48%
Moderate
SOC 51-2041

Structural Metal Fabricators and Fitters

Structural metal fabricators position, align, and weld steel into frames and structures from engineering drawings. CNC cutting and robotic welding handle repetitive production, but custom fabrication — fitting steel to drawings, tacking, and correcting for real-world variance — stays with the fitter.

Exposure
28
Automation
11%
Augment
46%
Low
SOC 51-3023

Slaughterers and Meat Packers

Slaughterers and meat packers stun, eviscerate, and cut carcasses on processing lines. Robotics has chased this work for decades and keeps losing to variability: no two carcasses are shaped alike, and vision-guided cutting still underperforms a trained knife hand on yield.

Exposure
34
Automation
17%
Augment
34%
Moderate
SOC 51-5113

Print Binding and Finishing Workers

Bindery workers set up and run the machines that cut, fold, stitch, and bind printed pieces. Digital print workflows automated much of prepress upstream, and finishing equipment keeps adding automation — but short runs, specialty binding, and packaging finishing still need operators who set up and adjust machines.

Exposure
52
Automation
29%
Augment
44%
Moderate
SOC 51-6031

Sewing Machine Operators

Sewing machine operators guide garments through machines, matching pieces and monitoring stitching. Soft, shifting fabric defeats robotic handling: sewbots work on a few rigid product types, while apparel's variety keeps human operators at the machine — trade policy, not technology, moves this employment.

Exposure
36
Automation
18%
Augment
36%
Moderate
SOC 51-6041

Shoe and Leather Workers and Repairers

Shoe and leather workers repair and recondition footwear, luggage, and leather goods by hand. The trade shrank with disposable footwear, but the repair-economy and sustainability movement — plus demand for resoling quality boots and restoring luxury leather goods — gives surviving shops a niche with pricing power.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
36%
Low
SOC 51-6092

Fabric and Apparel Patternmakers

Apparel patternmakers create and grade the master patterns garments are made from. CAD pattern software and 3D-fit simulation now handle drafting and virtual sampling — real, deployed tooling — while fit judgment, adjustment after live fittings, and translating a designer's sketch into producible geometry stay expert work.

Exposure
54
Automation
30%
Augment
58%
Moderate
SOC 51-6093

Upholsterers

Upholsterers fit and secure fabric over furniture frames, building up padding and cutting covers to pattern. Every piece differs — frames sag, springs fail, and fabric must be matched and tensioned by hand — keeping reupholstery a custom craft while new furniture production automated long ago.

Exposure
24
Automation
9%
Augment
38%
Low
SOC 51-8012

Power Distributors and Dispatchers

Power distributors and dispatchers control the flow of electricity across the grid, responding to equipment failures and routing power around outages. Renewables forecasting AI and grid-optimization software now advise dispatch decisions — but NERC-certified operators remain legally accountable for balancing the grid in real time.

Exposure
34
Automation
15%
Augment
54%
Low
SOC 51-8091

Chemical Plant and System Operators

Chemical plant operators control reaction processes from panelboards and control systems. Advanced process control has optimized routine operation for decades — the automation here is mature — leaving operators to handle upsets, draw samples, inspect units, and respond to emergencies.

Exposure
32
Automation
15%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 51-8093

Petroleum Pump System Operators and Refinery Operators

Petroleum pump system and refinery operators run the panels that move oil through pipelines and process units. Control systems regulate routine flow automatically — mature automation — while operators verify meters, coordinate product movement, and respond when instruments disagree with reality.

Exposure
34
Automation
16%
Augment
52%
Low
SOC 51-9081

Dental Laboratory Technicians

Dental laboratory technicians fabricate crowns, bridges, and dentures. Intraoral scanning and CAD/CAM milling genuinely transformed this role: digital design replaced waxing for routine units, compressing bench volume — while custom ceramics, shade matching, and complex implant work remain skilled craft.

Exposure
54
Automation
30%
Augment
52%
Moderate
SOC 53-3031

Driver/Sales Workers

Driver/sales workers run established routes delivering food, beverages, and supplies while selling to regular customers. Route-optimization software and online ordering compress the logistics, but the role survives on the relationship: the regular customer, the informal credit, the complaint handled at the door.

Exposure
46
Automation
24%
Augment
42%
Moderate
SOC 53-5031

Ship Engineers

Ship engineers monitor, operate, and repair vessel engines and machinery, keeping propulsion and power running at sea. Engine-room automation and condition monitoring are decades deep, and autonomous-vessel trials run with reduced crews — but licensed engineers remain aboard under crewing rules, fixing what breaks mid-ocean.

Exposure
30
Automation
13%
Augment
50%
Low
SOC 53-6031

Automotive and Watercraft Service Attendants

Automotive and watercraft service attendants fuel vehicles, check fluids, and sell accessories at stations and marinas. Self-service displaced most of this role decades ago — the automation here is complete history — leaving marina work, full-serve niches, and states where an attendant pumps by law.

Exposure
52
Automation
29%
Augment
42%
Moderate
SOC 53-7061

Cleaners of Vehicles and Equipment

Vehicle and equipment cleaners wash, polish, and detail vehicles and machinery. Conveyor tunnel washes automated exterior washing at scale — the displacement already happened — while interior detailing, hand polishing, and equipment cleaning remain manual work with growing express-detail demand.

Exposure
42
Automation
23%
Augment
36%
Moderate

What to do next

  1. Open the occupation page closest to your current work and review the task profile.
  2. Compare the top two transition pathways and choose the one that preserves the most wage and skill overlap.
  3. Use the calculator to adjust location, salary target, training runway, strengths, and move style.
  4. Save or share the plan before starting a course, portfolio project, or internal career conversation.
Which Production and Skilled Trades jobs are most exposed to AI?

In this category, Taxi Drivers currently has the highest displacement-pressure score in the published sample. Review the role page to see whether the risk comes from language work, routine information handling, reporting, customer interaction, or another task pattern.

Does a high category score mean every job is unsafe?

No. Category averages hide important differences between tasks and roles. Use the occupation pages to compare automation pressure, augmentation potential, wage vulnerability, and transition feasibility before deciding on a move.